Development

Developmental psychology

The study of continuity and change across the life span.

Infancy

The stage of development from birth to between 18-24 months.

Childhood

The stage of development from 18-24 months to 11-14 years.

Adolescence

The stage of development from 11-14 years to 18-21 years.

Adulthood

The stage of development from 18-21 years to old age.

Prenatal development

The process of development from conception to birth, consisting of three stages:germinal, embryonic, and fetal.

Germinal stage

• conception to 2 weeks

• zygote: a fertilized egg contains chromosomes from both sperm and an egg

• 50% of zygotes don’t make it as they become defective

Embryonic stage

• 2 to 8 weeks

• Cells begin to differentiate

• 30 days - poppy seed size

• 8-9wks - olive sized (develops arms, legs, beating heart)

Fetal stage

• 9 weeks to birth

• The fetus develops a skeleton, muscles, and brain development

• can move

Infant brain

The brain of a newborn, which is 25% of the size of an adult brain.

• can’t be full size - can’t support it

• better to have underdeveloped brain to have room for evolvement

Placenta

An organ in the womb that links the bloodstream of the mother to the fetus, allowing for the exchange of biological materials.

Teratogens

Agents that pass from the mother to the fetus and impair development, with alcohol being the most common

Fetal alcohol syndrome

A developmental disorder that occurs as a result of heavy alcohol use by the mother during pregnancy, leading to brain abnormalities.

heartbeat, GI, mother’s voice

• fetus has higher HR and more suckling when mother was talking

• suckle more with native language mother speaks

• cry in own language - vocal reflection help babies bond with their mothers

Newborns:

• poor distance vision

• can see things that are 8-12 inches away (distance they can feed at)

• habituate to visual stimuli - respond less to repeated exposure of same stimuli

• mimic facial expressions within first hour of life

motor reflexes

innate, specific patterns of motor response triggered by specific sensory stimulation

• e.g. rooting - touching a babies cheek

cephalocaudal rule

motor skills tend to emerge in sequence from the head to the feet

proximodistal rule

motor skills tend to emerge in sequence from center to the periphery

Sensorimotor (0-2)

• acquire info about the world by sensing ad moving around with it

• involves schemas, assimilation, accommodation, and object permanence

schemas

theories about the way the world works (nipple = food)

assimilation

applying an experience to pre-existing schemas (bottle nipple = food)

accommodation

revising schema following new information (dad boob= no food, mouthful of hair)

Object permanence

schema that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible (peek a boo)

preoperational (2-6)

• children develop preliminary understanding of the physical world

• think the way the world appears is the way it is

• develop theory of mind

• e.g. water in water bottle will equal the amount poured in a smaller glass but they think the bottle contains more

concrete operational (6-11)

• learn how various operations (actions) can affect or transform concrete objects

• learn the world may appear one way but is in fact another

• e.g. explain why the water bottle is the same amount of water

formal operational (11+)

• children can solve nonphysical problems; reasoning skills; abstract thinking

• e.g. define the word hypothetical

how do we measure what young infants know?

• sucking (preferences)

• eye movement (preferential gaze)

• preferential looking time (habituation)

egocentrism

failure to understand that the world appears different to different observers

• observed during preoperational stage

theory of mind

ability to attribute mental states to oneself and to others, and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one’s own

• language is important for development of ToM (autism and deaf children)

• influences by number of siblings, frequency of pretend play, SES, culture

what did Vygotsky believe?

• that children develop through interactions with the members of their own culture

• ability to learn from others depends on 3 fundamental skills: joint attention; imitation; social referencing

Joint attention

The ability to focus on what another person is focused on, which is a prerequisite for social learning.

Imitation

The ability to mimic the actions of another person.

Social referencing

The ability to use another person's reactions as information about how to think about the world (danger)

Caregivers are…

essential for the survival of human infants

social development

• Harlow conducted attachment experiments with baby monkeys who were deprived of social contact in the first 6mos

• had brain abnormalities, not able to communicate with or learn from others, no normal sexual behaviour, became rejecting mothers

Attachment

An emotional bond that forms with a primary caregiver just after birth, which is crucial for the infant's physical, mental, and emotional well-being.

Imprinting

• discovered by Lorenz in newly hatched goslings

what did Bowlby argue?

that infants channel their signals to primary caregivers to form attachment

Strange situation

A behavioral test developed by Ainsworth used to determine a child's quality of attachment, with infants reacting in one of four ways: secure, avoidant, ambivalent, or disorganized.

Attachment style definition

A characteristic pattern of reacting to the presence and absence of one's primary caregiver.

• securely attached do better than insecurely attached

attachment styles

• secure

• avoidant

• ambivalent

• disorganized

secure

not distressed when caregiver leaves and acknowledges return

• 60% of US infants

avoidant

not distressed when CG leaves; does not acknowledge return; 20%

ambivalent

distressed when CG leaves; difficult to calm when return; 15%

disorganized

no consistent response patterns; 5% (involve child abuse)

origin of attachment styles

• temperaments

• CG’s responsiveness and sensitivity

• internal working model of relationships (can or cannot rely on needs being met)

temperaments

biologically based patterns of emotional reactivity

• +ve mood, fearfulness, activity, irritability

• self-report by parent

• present at birth, stable over time

Puberty

The bodily changes associated with sexual maturity, which typically occurs between the ages of 11-14.

Primary sex characteristics

The reproductive organs that are directly involved in reproduction.

Secondary sex characteristics

The physical features that change dramatically with sexual maturity but are not directly involved in reproduction.

neurological changes in adolescence

inc in growth of brain tissue that connects different brain parts

The Protraction of Adolescence

age of puberty decreased (improved diets, chemicals, and stress) but the age of adulthood increased

Adolescent behaviour

• no moodier than children

• emotional regulation

• more impulsive

• more susceptible to peer influence

• some riskier behaviours

sexuality

• early maturation is more -ve for girls

  • not as much time to adjust, look older, treated like adults, pressure to look pretty, attention from older boys

• influence on emotional and behavioural problems

Sexual orientation

• largely biological influences

• child consistent non-conforming behaviour predicts sexual orientation

• 1 out of 25 CAN aged >15 identified at homosexual, bi, or transgender

• high MH usses

Understanding and expressing one's sexuality

Particularly stressful during adolescence.

Sexual Behavior

Adolescent interest in sex often comes before knowledge about it.

Adolescent social development

Shift in emphasis from family to peer relations.

Autonomy struggle in adolescence

Conflict with parents, reduced closeness, reduced time spent

Adulthood

• Stage of development beginning at 18-21 and ending at death

• development slows

• changes are physical and cognitive

Physical changes in adulthood

• Peak abilities in 20s and deterioration after 26-30

• lead to psychological consequences (cognitive decline)

• prefrontal cortex and associated brain structures deteriorate quickest

• overall memory decline

Cognitive changes in adulthood

• cognitive performance remains high due to:

  • using brain more skillfully - use other neural structures

  • knowledge accumulation

  • brain becomes de-differentiated (less specialized)

  • bilateral asymmetry disappears

Socioemotional selectivity theory

younger adults are oriented towards future-pertinent (useful) info; older adults focus on (+ve) emotional satisfaction in the present

• feel more attractive over 65 than under 34

changing goals involves…

• forego personal gains to be more interested in public good

• more generous

• fewer friends, more close-knit fam

• report late adulthood to be one of the happiest and most satisfying times of their life

Changing roles in adulthood

Marriage, children, and marital satisfaction.