tok part 2

rationalism vs empiricism, metaethics, the problem with knowledge

realism

the metaphysical idea that reality exists independently of one’s mind and yet can be known

idealism

the metaphysical idea that no-mind independent reality exists or can be known

solipsism

the view that only oneself, one’s mind, exists

phenomena

the ‘thing appearing to view’

noumena

the reality that exists independently of our perception, as opposed to phenomena.

phaneron

the real world filtered by our sensory input; the mental construct of the world as it is believed to be by an individual, apart from actual reality.The sum of all phenomena that are accessible to one's experience.

innate knowledge

knowledge that is believed to be inborn or instinctual, independent of experience or learning.

transcendent knowledge

knowledge that surpasses human experience, often associated with the divine or ultimate reality, gained through intuition or revelation rather than sensory experience.

fallibility

the potential for making errors or being incorrect, particularly regarding beliefs or judgments. It acknowledges that human perception and reasoning are not infallible.

fungibility

The property of being interchangeable or able to be exchanged for something of equal value, often used in the context of currencies or goods.

metaethics

the branch of ethics that explores the nature, meaning, and foundation of moral values and principles. It examines questions about what is right or wrong, and the meaning of moral terms.

correspondence theory

a philosophical concept stating that truth is determined by how accurately it reflects reality or corresponds to facts. (latching onto reality)

coherence theory

a philosophical concept asserting that truth is determined by the coherence of a set of beliefs or propositions within a given system. It emphasizes the logical consistency and mutual support of ideas.

pragmatic theory

a theory of truth that asserts that the truth of a belief is determined by its practical consequences and usefulness in real-world applications.

causal theory

a philosophical theory suggesting that truth is established through the relationship between cause and effect. It emphasizes how certain events or states of affairs can give rise to truth conditions.

descriptive cultural relativism

is the view that cultural norms and values derive their meaning and validity from the context of the specific culture in which they exist. It holds that beliefs and practices should be understood in their own cultural framework.

normative cultural relativism

is the perspective that two cultures cannot be judged by the same standards, suggesting that moral values and ethical standards are not universal but rather culturally bound. It argues that each culture's norms are right for that culture, promoting tolerance and understanding between different cultures.

• limits: no culture can ever be ‘wrong’

berkeley’s theory

proposes that objects only exist as they are perceived, asserting that perception is the basis of reality. This idealist view suggests that physical objects are not independent of the mind.

baudrilliard’s theory

is a philosophical perspective that argues that in a postmodern society, representations of reality (simulacra) have replaced reality itself, leading to a "hyperreal" experience where the distinction between reality and simulation blurs.

theory of forms

is a philosophical concept posited by Plato, which asserts that non-material abstract forms represent the most accurate reality. According to this theory, material objects are mere shadows of these perfect forms.

empiricists vs rationalists

empiricists: john locke, david hume, george berkeley, aristotle

rationalists: rene descartes, baruch spinoza, gottfried leibniz, plato

thomas nagel’s claim

there is no view from nowhere

• that offers an objective perspective on reality, as all perspectives are influenced by individual experiences and contexts.

• ‘paradigms’

relativism

is the philosophical idea that truth and moral values are not absolute, but instead vary between individuals and cultures, emphasizing the relativity of perspectives.

occam’s razor

is a problem-solving principle that suggests the simplest explanation, with the least number of assumptions, is often the correct one.

hume’s fork

is a philosophical concept introduced by David Hume, dividing knowledge into two categories: relations of ideas and matters of fact.

• relation of ideas: a priori propositions that are logically necessary and cannot be contradicted, such as mathematical truths. (facts)

• matters of fact: the factual, anthropological observation that different cultures have vastly different beliefs, moral codes, and practices. It simply states what is (the facts), without making any judgment on which culture is right or wrong

propositional knowledge (know that)

theoretical knowledge of facts, statements, and descriptions that can be verified as either true or false.

• storing and communicating information. It doesn't require personal, first-hand experience.

example: know that π is 3.14, knowing that paris is the capital of france

practical knowledge (know how)

the ability to perform physical or mental skills and tasks.

• Doing things. This form of knowledge is often non-verbal. You can be a master of a skill without being able to articulate the exact steps involved.

example: knowing how to ride a bike, knowing how to do long division

acquainted knowledge (know of)

direct familiarity with a person, place, sensation, or object gained through first-hand sensory experience.

• Experiencing the world. Unlike propositional knowledge, acquaintance cannot be taught, outsourced, or transferred through books.

• gained from your own empricial sensation

example: knowing the best places to eat in markham

justified truth bellief (JTB) theory

a traditional model of knowledge that argues that for a belief to be considered knowledge, it must be justified, true, and believed by the person. This theory aims to outline the conditions under which a belief qualifies as knowledge.

gettier case

a situation that challenges the JTB theory by demonstrating that a belief can be justified and true yet still not qualify as knowledge, due to the possibility of luck.

conspiracy theory

a belief that events or situations are secretly manipulated behind the scenes by powerful forces, often without substantiating evidence.

rene descartes belief

in the certainty of knowledge through doubt and reason, famously stating "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am), which emphasizes that thinking is the fundamental proof of existence.