Paper 2: The Dream of the Rood

Hwæt ic swefna cyst secgan wylle,

hwæt me gemaætte to midre nihte,

syðþan reordberend reste wunedon!

þuhte me þæt ic gesawe syllicre treow

on lyft lædan, leohte bewunden

lines 1-5

beama beorhtost. Eall þæt beacen wæs,

begoten mid golde. Gimmas stodon

fægere æt foldan sceatum, swylce þær fife wæron

uppe on þam eaxlegespanne. Beholdon þær engel dryhtnes ealle,

fægere þurh forðgesceaft. Ne wæs ðær huru fracodes gealga,

lines 6-10

ac hine þær beholdon halige gastas,

men ofer moldan, ond eall þeos mære gesceaft.

Syllic wæs se sigebeam, ond ic synnum fah,

forwunded mid wommum. Geseah ic wuldres treow,

wædum geweorðode, wynnum scinan,

lines 11-15

geyred mid golde; gimmas hæfdon

bewrigene weorðlice wealdendes treow.

Hwæðre ic þurh þæt gold ongytan meahte

earmra ærgewin, þæt hit ærest ongan

swætan on þa swiðran healfe. Eall ic wæs mid sorgum gedrefed,

lines 16-20

forht ic wæs for þære fægran gesyhðe. Geseah ic þæt fuse beacen

wendan wædum ond bleom; hwilum hit wæs mid wætan bestemed,

beswyled mid swates gange, hwilum mid since gegyrwed.

Hwæðre ic þær licgende lange hwile

beheold hreowcearig hælendes treow,

lines 21-25

oððæt ic gehyrde þæt hit hleoðrode.

Ongan þa word sprecan wudu selesta:

"þæt wæs geara iu, (ic þæt gyta geman),

þæt ic wæs aheawen holtes on ende,

astyred of stefne minum. Genaman me ðær strange feondas,

lines 26-30

astyred him þær to wæfersyne, heton me heora wergas hebban.

Bæron me ðær beornas on eaxlum, oððæt hie me on beorg asetton,

gefæstnodon me þær feondas genoge. Geseah ic þa frean mancynnes

efstan elne mycle þæt he me wolde on gestigan.

þær ic þa ne dorste ofer dryhtnes word

lines 31-35

bugan oððe berstan, þa ic bifian geseah

eorðan sceatas. Ealle ic mihte

feondas gefyllan, hwæðre ic fæste stod.

Ongyrede hine þa geong hæleð, (þæt wæs god ælmihtig),

strang ond stiðmod. Gestah he on gealgan heanne,

lines 36-40

modig on manigra gesyhðe, þa he wolde mancyn lysan.

Bifode ic þa me se beorn ymbclypte. Ne dorste ic hwæðre bugan to eorðan,

feallan to foldan sceatum, ac ic sceolde fæste standan.

Rod wæs ic aræred. Ahof ic ricne cyning,

heofona hlaford, hydan me ne dorste.

lines 41-45

þurhdrifan hi me mid deorcan næglum. On me syndon þa dolg geseine,

opene inwidhlemmas. Ne dorste ic nænigum sceððan.

Bysmeredon hie unc butu ætgædere. Eall ic wæs mid blode bestemed,

begoten of þæs guman sidan, siððan he hæfde his gast onsended.

Feala ic on þam beorge gebiden hæbbe

lines 46-50

wraðra wyrda. Geseah ic weruda godf

þearle þenian. þystro hæfdon

bewrigen mid wolcnum wealdendes hræw,

scirne sciman, sceadu forðeode,

wann under wolcnum. Weop eal gesceaft,

lines 51-55

cwiðdon cyninges fyll. Crist wæs on rode.

Hwæðere þær fuse feorran cwoman

to þam æðelinge. Ic þæt eall beheold.

Sare ic wæs mid sorgum gedrefed, hnag ic hwæðre þam secgum to handa,

eaðmod elne mycle. Genamon hie þær ælmihtigne god,

lines 56-60

ahofon hine of ðam hefian wite. Forleton me þa hilderincas

standan steame bedrifenne; eall ic wæs mid strælum forwundod.

Aledon hie ðær heofenes dryhten, ond he hine ðær hwile reste,

meðe æfter ðam miclan gewinne. Ongunnon him þa moldern wyrcan

lines 61-65

beornas on banan gesyhðe; curfon hie ðæt of beorhtan stane,

gesetton hie ðæron sigora wealdend. Ongunnon him þa sorhleoð galan

earme on þa æfentide, þa hie woldon eft siðian,

meðe fram þam mæran þeodne. Reste he ðær mæte weorode.

Hæðere we ðær greotende gode hwile

lines 66-70

stodon on staðole, syððan stefn up gewat

hilderinca. Hræw colode,

ealle to eorðan. þæt wæs egeslic wyrd!

Bedealf us man on deopan seaþe. Hwæðre me þær dryhtnes þegnas,

lines 71-75

freondas gefrunon,

ond gyredon me golde ond seolfre.

Nu ðu miht gehyran, hæleð min se leofa,

þæt ic bealuwara weorc gebiden hæbbe,

sarra sorga. Is nu sæl cumen

lines 76-80

þæt me weorðiað wide ond side

menn ofer moldan, ond eall þeos mære gesceaft,

gebiddaþ him to þyssum beacne. On me bearn godes

þrowode hwile. Forþan ic þrymfæst nu

hlifige under heofenum, ond ic hælan mæg

lines 81-85

æghwylcne anra, þara þe him bið egesa to me.

Iu ic wæs geworden wita heardost,

leodum laðost, ærþan ic him lifes weg

rihtne gerymde, reordberendum.

Hwæt, me þa geweorðode wuldres ealdor

lines 86-90

ofer holmwudu, heofonrices weard!

Swylce swa he his modor eac, Marian sylfe,

ælmihtig god for ealle menn

geweorðode ofer eall wifa cynn.

Nu ic þe hate, hæleð min se leofa,

lines 91-95

þæt ðu þas gesyhðe secge mannum,

onwreoh wordum þæt hit is wuldres beam,

se ðe ælmihtig god on þrowode

for mancynnes manegum synnum

ond Adomes ealdgewyrhtum.

lines 96-100

Deað he þær byridge, hwæðere eft dryhten aras

mid his miclan mihte mannum to helpe.

He ða on heofonas astag. Hider eft fundaþ

on þysyne middangeard mancynn secan

on domdæge dryhten sylfa,

lines 101-105

ælimihtig god, ond his englas mid,

þæt he þonne wile deman, se ah domes geweald,

anna gehwylcum swa he him ærur her

on þyssum lænum life geearnaþ.

Ne mæg þær ænig unfohrt wesan

106-110

for þam worde þe se wealdend cwyð.

Frineð he for þære mænige hwær se man sie,

se ðe for dryhtnes naman deaðes wolde

biteres onbyrigan, swa he ær on ðam beame dyde.

Ac hie þonne forhtiað, ond fea þencaþ

lines 111-115

hwæt hie to Criste cweðan onginnen.

Ne þearf ðær þonne ænig anforht wesan

þe him ær in breostum bereð beacna selest,

ac ðurh ða rode sceal rice gesecan

of eorðwege æghwylc sawl,

lines 116-120

seo þe mid wealdende wunian þenceð."

Gebæd ic me þa to þan beame bliðe mode,

elne mycle, þær ic ana wæs

mæte werede. Wæs modsefa

afysed on forðwege, feala ealra gebad

lines 121-125

langunghwila. Is me nu lifes hyht

þæt ic þone sigebeam secan mote

ana oftor þonne ealle men,

well weorþian. Me is willa to ðam

mycel on mode, ond min mundbyrd is

lines 125-30

geriht to þære rode. Nah ic ricra feala

freonda on foldan, ac hie forð heonon

gewiton of worulde dreamum, sohton him wuldres cyning,

lifiaþ nu on heofenum mid heahfædere,

wuniaþ on wuldre, ond ic wene me

lines 131-135

daga gehwylce hwænne me dryhtnes rod,

þe ic her on eorðan ær sceawode,

on þysson lænan life gefetige

ond me þonne gebringe þær is blis mycel,

dream on heofonum, þær is dryhtnes folc

lines 136-140

geseted to symle, þær is singal blis,

ond me þonne asette þær ic syþþan mot

wunian on wuldre, well mid þam halgum

reames brucan. Si me dryhten freond,

se ðe her on eorþan ær þrowode

lines 141-145

on þam gealgtreowe for guman synnum.

He us onlysde ond us lif forgeaf,

heofonlicne ham. Hiht wæs geniwad

mid bledum ond mid blisse þam þe þær bryne þolodan.

Se sunu wæs sigorfæst on þam siðfate,

lines 146-150

mihtig ond spedig, þa he mid manigeo com,

gasta weorode, on godes rice,

anwealda ælmihtig, englum to blisse

ond eallum ðam halgum þam þe on heofonum ær

wunedon on wuldre, þa heora wealdend cwom,

ælmihtig god, þær his eðel wæs.

lines 151-156

lines 1-5

- 'Hwæt!' - conventional of OE oral poetry, meant for performance ('reordberend', kenning, voice-bearer = humans) - yet the current, awake speaker is the only one that matters. OE poetic call to attention. 'reord' as pun on rood? The word occurs also in Elene and Andreas (both found in the Vercelli MS) and several times in Christ (which offers a number of interesting parallels to this poem) → In every case the context is Christian

- 'syllicre treow' = 'most best' approximately - pattern of implying a multitude of things (voice-bearers, trees) then setting one single one apart as most important.

'treow' as pun on true (treowe)

- 'leohte bewunden', takes on material form, yet ethereal. unfamiliar verb in context of light adds to disorientation of the dream.

-midre nihte, middle of the night = time of reflection, and time of Jesus' return.

lines 6-10

-double alliteration of the 'beama beorhtost ... beacen', and enjambed alliteration with 'begoten'. pun on beam of light/wood

-'uppe on þam eaxlegespanne', HL, metaphorical reference to shoulders for placement of gems. 'uppe' is stressed (unusual for preposition), heavenly directionality emphasized

-litotes, 'ne wæs ðǣr hūru fracodes ġealga'. not gallows for the wicked - Christ!

- 5 gems for Christ's 5 wounds

-'fægere þurh forðgesceaft' - fair through creation. gnomic? hypermetric. repetition of faegere.

-uppe on þam eaxglespanne. Beholodon þaer engel dryhtnes ealle, both verses hypermetric

lines 11-20

-dichotomy of 'syllic waes sigebeam ond ic synnum fah (wonderfull cross, speaker full of sin). rhyme of syllic/ic - chiasmic structure of adj/subj/subj/adj

- variation for both sinfulness (forwunded mid wommum) and wonderfulness of cross (wynnum scinan etc)

- wǣdum ġeweorðode, honoured with garments. personification

-ambiguity of 'earmra aergewin' (hostility of ancient wretches) those who criucified christ? original sin?

-'mid sorgum gedrefed, drenched with sorrows.

-Ne wæs ðær huru fracodes gealga, litotes - no gallows of the wicked (is rather gallows for superlatively holy)

-heavy apposition.

lines 21-25

- apposition of the speaker's fear

-'fuse beacen', personification - urgent.

-multiple variation on the tree: cannot be completely characterized, multifarious.

‘mid wǣtan’ - close lexical mirroring w/ line 48

-paralellism in anaphoric 'hwilum... mid waetan bestemed, hwilum mid since gegyrwed' just as Christ both human + divine, cross both coated with liquid and solid

-plurilinear alliteration of 'h'

-l20-23 hypermetric in a verse

lines 26-30

-cross alliteration, 'word sprecan wudu selesta' - speak words , that greatest wood

-variation on speak

-prosopopoeia, cross begins to speak - remniscient of riddles, but has homletic power instead of secular/ludic power.

-l.30=hypermetric

-transition from seeing to hearing

-juxtaposition of tenses, distant past to vivid present. geara iu (very long ago) // gyta geman (still remember)

lines 31-35

-lots of hypermetric lines

-Christ as willing, active: he me wolde on gestigan, wanted to climb up on me

-'bæron me ðær beornas on eaxlum', differs from Matthew: Christ didn't carry it up. kontrastimitation.

-deixis of ðær

-'Frean manycnnes', the lord of mankind - more often used for God, corresponds to medieval view of Christ as God and man

-‘elne myċle’ = ‘great zeal/courage/strength’; seems at various points to denote zeal or eagerness – also in line 60 and line 123; first used to describe christ, then cross, then dreamer – notion of a zeal that is distributed in the moment of encounter – transmission of authority

-cross as retainer, 'ne dorste' disobey the lord

-30-34 hypermetric in a verse

lines 36-40

-alliteration of bugan (bend), berstan (break), bifian (tremble)

-cross as Christ's retainer (dryhtnes word), could have slayed the foes, but doesn't (faeste stod) because of Christ.

Separation of ‘ealle’ and ‘feondas’ might function to focalise the totalising power of the cross – makes physical the restraint onto the page

-syntactically complete b line, 'þæt , linked to image of stripping by alliteration to 'God' at headstave.

-plosive alliteration of 'strang ond stīðmōd', the latter meaning 'of firm mind'

-ref to heanne gealgan, high gallows (heanne meaning doubly high and deep)

-bifian... eorðan sceatas (corners of the earth shake) - prolepsis for judgement day

-ongyrede hine, undressed himself (willing, classical image of stripping for combat)

lines 41-45

-apposition of bugan (bend)/ feallan (fall), except the latter displays greater resolution against an external force rather than against an internal resolution. both personifications present as decisions what are in fact inactive physical necessities

-syntactically complete a and b: 'rod waes ic araered. ahof ic ricne cyning'. chiasmus (structure repeated but in reverse order)

-variation, ricne cyning // heofona hlaford

-repetition of both 'ne dorste' and 'bugan'

-chiasmus between 'araered' and 'ahof'. similar sense of raising, both growing up and physical heightening.

-44-45 are a break in an ongoing chain of hypermetric lines either side.

lines 46-50

- 'þurhdrifan hi me mid deorcan næglum', dual reference to the cross and to Christ, even taking emphasis away from Christ to the cross itself. repeated 'me' - cross as individual. cross as proxy for christ, an expression of his pain without christ maintaining stoic facade.

-'Bysmeredon hīe unc būtū ætgædere' (mocked us both together), now Christ and cross one unified entity. unc as dual pronoun. thus 'ætgædere' tautological for emphasis.

-euphemistic ref to death: 'siððan hē hæfde his gāst onsended' (sent his soul forth)

-'inwidhlemmas', HL, evil wounds.

-syntactically complete 'ne dorste ic hira naenigum sceððan'.

-shift to present tense, þurhdrifan to syndon (are). sense of permenance.

-his gast ondended, even death is an active process for christ

lines 51-55

-'scirne sciman', dead yet transcendent - gleaming with light.

alliterates with 'sceadu'.

-variation on wolcnum (shadows), which literally envelop description of Christ's body.

-'wraðra wyrda', crelty of fate/events.

-long stretch of double alltiteration (all A1 metre) bounded by A3 metre

lines 56-60

-lots of syntactically complete half lines: weop eal gesceaft; crist waes on rode. complete; ic þæt eall beheold.

-these lines are on the ruthwell cross

-'mid sorgum gedrefed' is a repetition of the metaphor used by the dreamer in l.20b. unites the dreamer and the cross. earthly trinity?

-'mid elne mycle' (with great eagerness) appears here for the cross but also for the dreamer and christ elsewhere.

-periphrastic address of Christ's death, limwerigne (limb-weary)

-cyninges, æðelinge, secular/germanic description

-ic ... beheold, foregrounding of cross as witness

-reappearance of 'elne' valour.

-Crist waes on rode as the climax of the poem, dramatic peak, as transcribed in runes on the Ruthwell Cross

-lots of unstressed syllables here, slows down narration

lines 61-65

-Christ as Germanic warrior: wounded with arrows, tired (limwerigne) instead of dead - he hine ðǣr hwīle reste (rested himself there for a while), mēðe æfter ðām miċlan ġewinne (weary after the battle) --- all liotes, ironically or otherwise understating the suffering and sacrifice of Christ: indeed, little suffering or sacrifice occurs.

-'hilderincas', the apostles as retainers.

-gewine = victory/battle/agony. ambiguity from sufferer to warrior

-anaphora of 'ongunnon', they begun - sense of rebuilding, but unfinished, incomplete without christs resurrection

-bowing down to give christ to the apostles now 'hnag' instead of bugan, as when he dare not.

lines 66-70

-sorhleoð, sorrow-song. doesn't occur in biblical accounts, pagan funeral rite.

-sigora wealdend (ruler of victories), as cross is 'victory-tree' earlier

-both Christ and the disciples are exhausted, 'mēðe' repeated.

-litotes - rested there with little company (in fact is dying alone)

-reste as proleptic of his return

lines 71-75

-switch to plural pronoun, 'we'.

- single line: 'hilderinca. Hraew colode'

-repetition of 'nu' beginning in l75, gives this moment a sense of being in the present, immediacy.

-l75 oddly hypermetric: talks about Elene and the recovery of the cross - slowing could refer to this time gap.

-egeslic wyrd! - terrible fate.

-stefn up gewat, the voice [of the warriors] departed up. remniscient of christ departing up.

-feorgbold - life-dwelling (kenning, body - emphasizes emptiness of physicality and separation of body/soul)

lines 76-80

-hæleð (hero) used to refer to Christ beforehand.

-'freondas gefrunon/ gyredon me golde ond seolfre.' (friends discovered me there, decorated me in gold and silver), reference to Elena (Constantine's mother) who finds cross and adorns it.

-ultra short line 'frondas gefrunon'.

-gyredon me golde ond seolfre, prepared me with gold and silver - link to the appearance of the cross at the start

-bealuwara, evil doers (those who put christ on cross) - yet the cross claims victimhood (thus christ can be pure heroic archetype)

lines 81-85

-Christ as 'bearn godes' (the son of God) not prev seen. transcendence resisting language itself? elusive nature being named by so many different titles, including ælmihtiġ God.

-'Ond eall þēos mære gesceaft' (and all this excellent creation) mirrors line 12.

-cross as powerful 'nu' (now), invested with the powers of christ to haelan (heal) any who is in awe/fears it.

lines 86-90

-cross transitions from instrument of suffering/retainer to Christ, to a way to access salvation: 'ic haelan maeg ... him bið egesa to me'

-transition from 'nu' to 'iu' (long ago).

-reordberendum recurs, as the audience for the rood's message.

-repetition of 'hwaet!', mirrors that of the dreamer at the start.

-iu ic waes geworden wita heardost, long ago i became the hardest of punishments; cross as able to transform from instrument of punishment to symbol/figure of awe.

lines 91-95

-variation on Christ, 'wuldres ealdor'/heofonrices weard'

-Elevation of Mary 'ofer eall wifa cynn'.

link between the honoring of cross + mary over all others 'of their kind' by God in that they both bore Christ.

-paradoxical moment in medieval art, both death of christ but birth of the Church.

-direct address to the dreamer, 'Nu Ic ðe hate, hæleð min se leofa', (now i urge you, beloved man)

-ofer holtwudu, rood as elevated over other trees (idea remniscient of superlative pattern at start)

-compared to mary by the amount that she is honoured by God/christ 'ofer eall wifa cynn', over all womankind. parallel between spiritual rebirth offered by cross and og birth from mary.

lines 96-100

-'wuldres beam' (tree of glory), reflective of 'wuldres ealdor'

-'mancynnes manegum synnum' idea that Christ was not only redeeming sinners present but all sinners past (harrowing of hell)

-'ond adomes ealdgewyrhtum' (adam's original deeds), euphemistic of original sin, occupies entire half line

-ic þe hate, i command/urge you, direct address (to the dreamer) as haeleð, man/warrior. Switch from narrating to instructing. Homiletic/sermonly.

lines 101-105

-litotes in 'Dēað hē þǣr byriġde' (tasted death)

-apo koinou construction in 101: 'he' is ambiguous, either Adam or Christ. linking of them, and ref to Corinthians seeing Christ as New Adam. dotr as analeptic and proleptic because of this dual link between Adam. link between tasting (byrigde) and death. turns death from passive to active again.

-christ as absolving sin as originated from adam, equally as actively

-'astag' (ascended) recalls leaping on the cross

lines 106-110

-polyptoton of 'deman', 'domes' (judge/judgement), unites the spiritual and the actual through the holy power of christ

-'ne mæg þǣr ǣniġ unforht wesan' (nor may any of them be afraid here), litotes as they are in awe - gives the maxim a gnomic quality

-ideas of judgement, as in ii,iii and judgement day i,ii.

-crossed alliteration/transverse alliteration: 'wile deman, se ah domes geweald/anra gehwylcum swa he him aerur her'

-ne maeg þær aenig unforht wesan, nor may any of them be afraid there - litotes

lines 111-115

-variation on Christ: 'wealdend', 'dryhtnes'.

-metamorphosis of the cross from great 'beame' . l114, to small crucifix worn as necklace, 'þe him ær in brēostum bereð bēacna sēlest' (who bear before them in the breast the best of trees) l118. cross turns from a prosopopeic object with agency to a symbol whose meaning outlasts it.

-euphemism, 'dēaðes wolde biteres onbyriġan' (taste bitter death, ref to earlier)

-'wealdend cwyð', ruler will speak. present tense used to portray future action

-deaðes wolde / biteres onbyrigan, would taste bitter death agency in christ again. is originally þrowode (suffering) in MS but emended. ref to adam again

lines 116-120

-extensive variation used for both christ and the cross unites them somewhat, expresses their ineffability

-duality of 'in breostum bereð', ie either physically through crucifix or spiritual holding of christ in heart. christ and cross once again conflated.

-cross references self in third person: 'ðurh ða rode sceal rice gesecan'. crossed alliteration of rsrs here too, ties cross to christ and heaven

-beacna selest, best of trees, repeated

-eorðwege, earthly way. kenning, life as pilgrimage/journey of soul

lines 121-125

-dreamer prays with 'elne mycle', great zeal. echo of l34,60, which refer to christ/cross. thus trinitarian hermeneutic between cross christ and dreamer. trinitarian in that we recognize they are one and the same - indeed united through this very poem which arguably combines their voices to gain one message.

-'afysed on forwege' (inspired with longing for the way forward) periphrastic talking about death.

-mosefa (mind spirit) internal. there are 3 poetic parts of human: mind, body, soul (mod, flesc, sawle) and only soul is eternal, and mod which controls the body.

-shift to the 'ic' of the dreamer

-maete werede, litotes - with little company - again transferral of epithet refing christ after death.

-life as path transferred from cross to dreamer, forðwege (compound also refers to death as a path) stages the ideal reader response to the initial textuality (stages intertextuality itself).

lines 126-130

-'langunghwila' (periods of longing) takes up entire half line (emphasis on length)

-'sigebeam' (victory tree)

-emphasis on aloneness, elevation over 'other men' (in same way as cross and mary)

-mundbyrd (protector of birth)

-dreamer is now convinced to 'well weorþian' the 'sigebeam' training audience in their reaction.

-'ana oftor' - alone more often. the dreamer as elevated due to conversation with cross? or staging an idealized christian morality as one which competes against others to honour the cross the most?

lines 136-140

-variation of 'blis mycel' and 'singal blis', evelopes heaven as a kind of mead hall 'geseted to symle' (set to feast)

-subjunctive mood, 'gefetige'/'gebringe', the dreamer doesn't know if he's righteous enough for heaven

-laenan life, transitory life

lines 146-150

-variation on heaven, 'heofonlice ham', 'godes rice' etc.

-anaphora of þær is in the b verse

-gealgtreowe, once again recognized as instrument of punishment

'sigorfaest' - victorious (Germanic hero)

-us lif forgeaf - harrowing of hell

-siðfate, journey? death?

-si me dryhten freond, may the lord be a friend to me. subjunctive, mode of prayer.

-her + aer combination, used first for dreamer (her on eorðan aer sceawode, looked at here on earth) and now christ (her on eorðan aer ðrowode, suffered)

lines 151-156

• 'gasta weorode' (troop/army of spirits) germanic and christian ideas again fused

• sigorfaest, victorious.

• variation on Christ, including 'se sunu', although this is not used before hand. individualized warrior figure? christ as member of trinity (not prev mentioned)

• who in heaven before christs redemption? (eallum ðam halgum, all the saints) - Enoch, Elijah and the Good Thief