Midterm Review (First Semester Units)

This set includes all psych units from the first semester.

Confederate

Someone hired by the experimenters who is in on the true nature of the study.

Frequency Distribution

A summary showing how often the x-value occurs.

Histogram

A graph that displays a frequency distribution.

Descriptive Statistics

Statistics that describe the basic features of data (measures of central tendency and variation).

Inferential Statistics

Statistics that allow conclusions to be drawn about a population from a sample.

Measures of Central Tendency

Statistics that describe the center of a data set (mean, median, mode).

Normal Distribution

A symmetric bell-shaped distribution where mean = median = mode.

68% Rule (1 SD)

Approximately 68% of scores fall within one standard deviation of the mean in a normal distribution.

95% Rule (2 SDs)

Approximately 95% of scores fall within two standard deviations of the mean in a normal distribution.

Effect Size

A measure of the magnitude of a finding (how big the effect is). Big effect size = strong correlation

Regression Toward the Mean

High and low scores get closer to the mean the more you re-test. More data = more typical results.

Positive / Right Skew

Skew where the tail is longer on the right, with higher extreme scores. Pulls up median and mean. Mode sits on top.

Negative / Left Skew

Skew where the tail is longer on the left, with lower extreme scores. Pulls down median and mean. Mode sits on top.

Bimodal Distribution

A distribution with two commonly occurring values.

Median over Mean in Skewed Distributions

The median is less affected by extreme scores than the mean is, so it is preferred for skewed distributions.

Random Assignment

Randomly assigning participants to groups to equalize groups and reduce bias. Keeps groups as identical as possible.

Single-Blind Study

Participants do not know whether they are in the control or experimental group.

Double-Blind Study

Neither participants nor researchers know who is in which group, reducing bias.

Experimenter Bias

Researchers' expectations influence the outcome; mitigated by double-blind designs.

Naturalistic Observations

Describing behavior as it occurs in its natural environment without interference. Works best for human behaviors but can’t draw causal connections.

Meta-Analysis

Statistical synthesis of results from multiple different types of studies on the same topic.

Falsifiable

Capable of being proven false by data or observation.

Treatment

The active form of the IV applied to the experimental group.

Random Sampling illustrated

Population → sample

Random assignment illustrated

sample → control and treatment groups

Directionality Problem

Correlation does not reveal which variable influences the other.

Third-Variable Problem

A separate variable may influence both variables in a correlation.

Self-Report Bias

Inaccurate responses due to memory errors or social desirability within a survey.

Social Desirability Bias

Respondents answer a survey in a way they think will be viewed favorably by others.

overconfidence bias

our natural tendency to overestimate our own abilities

confirmation bias

our tendency to pay attention to evidence that supports our preexisting beliefs.

hindsight bias

tendency to perceive pas events a smore predictable than they actually were.

Neuron

cells specialized for rapid communication within the brain via electrochemical signals.

glial cells

support cells for neurons that give neurons nutrients, oxygen, and waste removal services.

dendrites

the part of the neuron that recieves incoming messages and looks spikey.

synapse

the place where two neurons meet and communicate via neurotransmitters. where elctrical signals are converted to chemical signals (neurotransmitters).

myelin sheath

part of the neuron that is made of fatty glial cells. insulates the axon and speeds up action potentials along neurons. it looks like a dot in a rectangle

axon

the longest part of the neuron. electrical signals travel this entire length.

axon terminals

end points of the axon that transmit signals to other neurons. they release neurotransmitters into the synapse.

resting potential

the first phase of the neuron firing process when the neuron is polarized.

neuron polarization

when the neuron is slightly more negative on theinside than the outside. about -70 mv is the resting state of a neuron.

depolarization

second phase of the neuron firing process. when the interior of the neuron becomes less negative due to receiving a stimulus.

depolarization threshold

-55 mv is the threshold for action potential. If the inside of the neuron doesn’t reach this, it won’t fire. when it does fire, it is the third phase.

refractory period

the time a neuron takes to get back ot its resting potential of -70 mv. it can only fire again after this

multiple sclerosis

the loss of myelin that disrupts the nervous system’s ability to transmit signals. leads to loss of muscle control and coordination.

excitatory signals

like hitting the gas. if excitatory exceeds inhibitory, neurons will fire.

inhibitory signals

like hitting the brakes.

receptor sites

specifc sites on dendrites of neurons that receive specific neurotransmitters

reuptake

wehn the sending neuron reabsorbs the neurotransmitters it just sent out after it was released to the synapse and binded to recepter sites.

this prevents neurotransmitters from remaining in the synapse and binding over and over again.

acetylcholine

role: voluntary movement, learning, memory.

disorders: alzheimers in a deficit. mathenia gravis is when paralysis causes damage to ACH receptors.

dopamine

role: movement, rewards, pleasure form sex food drugs

disorders: parkinsons in a deficit, schizo in a surplus

serotonin

role: mood, hunger, sleep, arousal

disorders: depression in a deficit

norepinephrine

role: “adrenaline,” altertness, arousal, fight or flight

disorders: depressed mood in deficit, high blood pressure in surplus

GABA

role: major inhibitory neurotransmitter, slows down neural activity, relaxation

disorders: seizures, tremors, and insomnia in a deficit

endorphins

role: major excitatory neurotransmitter, increased neural activity, altertness

disorders: oversupply with opiates reduces natural production in a deficit

glutamate

role: pain relief and pleasure, natural opiates, runners high

disorders: fatigue and lack of sleep in a deficit, seizures and migrains in excess

substance p

role: transmits pain signals from body to brain, promotes inflammation in response to injury

hormones 

similar in function to neurotransmitters, but slow moving and only in the endocrine system. neurotransmitters are in the nervous system.

agonist

enhances neurotransmitter activity by either activating receptor sites or blocking reuptake.

antagonist

something that blocks neurotransmitter activity

sensory neurons

carry incoming messages like an “input signal”

motor neurons

carry outgoing messages from the CNS to peripheral nervous system like an “output signal”

interneurons

only in the CNS, act as messengers between sensory and motor neurons.

reflex arc

natural circuit containing interneurons.

central nervous system

brain and spine only

peripheral nervous system

contains somatic and autonomic nervous systems. sends sensory messages to CNS and transmits motor messages to body.

autonomic nervous system

involuntary functions, stimulating gland and maintaining internal organs, breathing, heartrate, digestion

somatic nervous system

voluntary functions, motor neurons, transmit sensory info to brain, sensory neurons

sympathetic nervous system

fight or flight, dilutes pupils, accelerates breathing and heartrate, inhibits digestion, conserves energy, sweating.

parasympathetic

rest and digest, pupils contract, breathing and heartrate slow, digestive activity returns, sweating stops.

EEG

measures brain waves via electrodes to capture fleeting mental processes

fMRI

records brain activity and structure + monitors blood and oxygen flow to show exactly where activity is coming from in the brain.

brainstem

most primitive part of the brain with a RAS and thalamus

medulla

regulates breathing and heartrate. if medusa turns you to stone you cant breathe

RAS

regulates alertness, arousal, and sleep cycle. raspberries make me sleepy.

thalamus

gateway that directs incomign sensory messages (except smell)

cerebellum

controlls coordination and fine motor skills and balance

hippocampus

long-term memories. one in each brain hemisphere

hypothalamus

eating, drinking, body temp, fighting, fleeing, furnacing, frenching. maintainance.

pituitary gland

love hormone (oxytocin) and endocrine system

cerebral cortex

uniquely human functioning. frontal, parietal, and occipital lobes.

corpus callosum

conencts both halves of brain. treats epilepsy when separated

prefrontal cortex

part of frontal lobe, executive functioning, decisionmaking, goal-setting, advanced mental functioning

motor cortex

part of frontal lobe, sends messages to body telling it to move

broca’s area

part of brain that aids production of speech

somatosensory cortex

part of parietal lobe, mirrors motor cortex for pressure, temp, pain. ONLY touch.

auditory cortex

part of temporal lobe, only sound

wernicke’s area

part of brain that comprehension of language

occipital lobe

part of brain that processes visual information

association areas

synthesize, processs, and organize information. wernicek and brocas areas, for example.

left side of brain

language procesing, analytic and sequential, SPEECH

right side of brain

interpreting emotional tone of speech, perceptual tasks, holistic and emotional, spacial reasoning

brain plasticity

brain’s capacity to reorganize and heal itself.

Non-REM 1

transition period between waking and sleep. sometimes hyponagogic sensations happen during this time (suddenly jolting awake)

Non-REM 2

body temp drops and heart rate slows

Non-REM 3

muscles relax, blood pressure drops, breath slows. deepest sleep. Time spent here decreases over the course of the night.

REM

brain is more active and dreams occur. known as paradoxical sleep because brain waves look like the brain is awake. Time spent in REM increases over the course of the night.

REM Rebound Effect

after misssed sleep, next time you spend more time in REM

Sleep apnea

intermittently stop breathing during the night.

REM Sleep Disorder Behavior

when your body is paralyzed during REM and you act out your dreams.