Paper 1a everything

Animal Research

Research using animals to understand human behaviour when direct human experimentation may be unethical or impractical.

Why use animal research?

High control of variables, ability to establish cause-and-effect relationships, biological similarities between mammals and humans, fewer ethical restrictions.

Behaviour studied in Rosenzweig

Adaptability and brain development.

Rosenzweig Study (1962)

Rats were placed in enriched, standard, or isolated environments. Rats in enriched environments developed thicker cerebral cortices and greater brain weight.

Rosenzweig Findings

Environmental stimulation and social interaction promote neuroplasticity and brain development.

Biological Reductionism

Explaining behaviour solely through biological factors while ignoring cognitive and social influences.

Localization of Function

The theory that specific brain regions are responsible for particular behaviours or cognitive functions.

Maguire Study (2000)

MRI scans showed London taxi drivers had larger posterior hippocampi than non-taxi drivers.( Spatial memory.)

Maguire Findings

Extensive use of spatial memory is associated with changes in the hippocampus.

Strength of Biological Reductionism

Uses objective scientific measurements such as MRI scans.

Limitation of Biological Reductionism

Ignores social and cognitive influences on behaviour.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Brain imaging technique using magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed structural images of the brain.

Advantages of MRI

Non-invasive, high-resolution images, measures brain structure.

Maguire Study and MRI

MRI scans measured hippocampal volume in London taxi drivers. (Spatial memory.)

Maguire MRI Findings

Taxi drivers showed larger hippocampi, suggesting a link between brain structure and spatial memory.

Compliance

A change in behaviour following a direct request.

Authority Principle

People are more likely to comply when requests come from someone perceived as having authority.

Bickman Study (1974)

Researcher dressed as a security guard, milkman, or civilian and asked pedestrians to complete simple tasks.(Compliance)

Bickman Findings

Participants were most likely to comply when the researcher wore a security guard uniform.

What does Bickman demonstrate?

The authority principle increases compliance.

Cognitive Model

A framework that explains mental processes through stages or systems.

Multi-Store Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin)

Memory consists of sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).

Peterson & Peterson Study (1959)

Participants memorized trigrams while counting backwards to prevent rehearsal. (Memory recall.)

Peterson & Peterson Findings

Recall rapidly decreased after about 18–20 seconds without rehearsal.

What does the study support?

The limited duration of short-term memory.

Neurotransmission

The process by which neurotransmitters transmit signals between neurons.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that influence behaviour and cognition.

Synapse

The gap between two neurons where neurotransmitters travel.

Receptor Sites

Structures on neurons that receive neurotransmitters.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter associated with mood regulation and reduced aggression.

Passamonti Study (2012)

Participants consumed either tryptophan (increases serotonin) or a placebo before viewing emotional faces during fMRI scanning. (Aggression/emotional regulation.)

Passamonti Findings

Increased serotonin reduced amygdala activity when viewing angry faces.

What does the study suggest?

Serotonin helps regulate emotional and aggressive responses.

Genetic Inheritance

The transmission of genes from parents to offspring that may influence behaviour.

Concordance Rate

The likelihood that both twins share a particular trait.

Monozygotic (MZ) Twins

Identical twins sharing 100% of their genes.

Dizygotic (DZ) Twins

Fraternal twins sharing approximately 50% of their genes.

Lange Study (1929)

Compared criminal records of MZ and DZ twins. (Criminality.)

Lange Findings

77% concordance for criminality in MZ twins versus 12% in DZ twins.

What does Lange suggest?

Genetic factors may contribute to criminal behaviour.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to change structure and function in response to experience.

How does neuroplasticity occur?

Frequently used neural pathways strengthen while unused pathways weaken.

Maguire Study and Neuroplasticity

London taxi drivers had enlarged posterior hippocampi due to extensive navigation experience. (Spatial memory.)

What does Maguire suggest? (NP)

The brain reorganizes itself according to environmental demands.

Localization of Function

The theory that specific brain areas are responsible for specific functions.

Hippocampus

Brain structure associated with memory and learning.

Maguire Study

Taxi drivers had larger hippocampi than controls. (Spatial memory)

What does Maguire support? (LOF)

The hippocampus plays an important role in spatial memory.

Cognitive Dissonance

Psychological discomfort caused by conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or behaviours.

Factors Affecting Dissonance

Strength of beliefs, conflicting information, level of justification.

Festinger's Seekers Study (1956)

Researchers observed a cult predicting the world's end. (Rationalization.)

how did dissonance occur?

The prediction failed, creating dissonance among members.

How was dissonance reduced?

Members accepted the explanation that their faith had saved the world.

What does the study demonstrate?

People rationalize contradictions to reduce cognitive dissonance.

Emic Approach

Studying behaviour from within a culture using culturally specific concepts and methods.

Advantages of Emic Research

Greater cultural understanding, culturally relevant tools, accurate interpretation.

Culture of Honor

Belief that reputation should be defended aggressively when challenged.

Bettencourt Study

Compared responses to insults in honor and non-honor cultures. (Aggression.)

Bettencourt Findings

Participants from honor cultures reacted more aggressively to insults.

What does the study demonstrate?

Behaviour is best understood within its cultural context.

Etic Approach

Studying behaviour from an outsider perspective using standardized tools across cultures.

Characteristics of Etic Research

Standardized methods, cross-cultural comparisons, reduced researcher bias.

Berry Study

Compared Inuit and Temne participants using a variation of the Asch line judgment task. (Conformity)

Berry Findings

Temne participants showed higher conformity than Inuit participants.

What does the study demonstrate?

Cultural differences influence conformity.

Acculturation

Cultural and psychological changes resulting from contact with another culture.

Berry's Acculturation Model

Assimilation, Separation, Integration, Marginalization.

Assimilation

Rejecting original culture and adopting new culture.

Separation

Maintaining original culture while avoiding the new culture.

Integration

Maintaining original culture while also participating in the new culture.

Marginalization

Losing connection with both original and new cultures.

Berry’s Deaf Community Study

Examined how Deaf Americans maintained Deaf culture while participating in wider American society. (Adaptation.)

Findings

Many adopted an integration strategy.

Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner)

Theory explaining how group membership influences behaviour and self-esteem.

Social Categorization

Dividing people into in-groups and out-groups.

Social Identity

Developing identity through group membership.

Social Comparison

Comparing one's group favourably against other groups.

BIRGing

Basking in reflected glory after group success.

CORFing

Cutting off reflected failure after group failure.

Cialdini Study

Measured university students wearing school clothing after football wins and losses. (self-esteem)

Cialdini Findings

Students associated more strongly with their team after wins than losses.

Schema Theory

Knowledge is organized into mental frameworks called schemas.

Schema

A mental representation used to organize and interpret information.

Functions of Schemas

Organize knowledge, guide interpretation, reconstruct memories.

Behaviour studied

Memory recall and reconstruction.

Bransford & Johnson Study (1972)

Participants listened to an ambiguous passage with either a title before, after, or no title.

Bransford & Johnson Findings

Participants given the title before the passage showed the best comprehension and recall.

Memory Reconstruction

Recalling memories using existing knowledge, which can sometimes distort memories.