AP Lang Vocab - Rhetoric and Logical Fallacies

logos

a Greek term that appeals to logic and reasoning (definitions, facts, data, evidence)

exemplification

a rhetorical mode that provides a series of examples (facts, specific cases, instances); makes an argument clear and more persuasive

voice

is the distinctive style of language based on the elements of diction, detail, imagery, syntax, and tone

pathos

a Greek term that appeals to emotion (vivid details, emotional examples)

ethos

a Greek term that appeals to ethics, authority, credibility, and character (is the author/text reliable?)

quotation

a line or excerpt taken word for word, enclosed in quotation marks and cited correctly

definition

a rhetorical mode in which a writer names/identifies something

argumentation/persuasion

a rhetorical mode that attempts to prove a point of view by presenting a reasonable and convincing discussion; oftentimes serves as a “call-to-action”, meaning it urges the readers to take a stance or act upon something

analysis

a rhetorical mode that breaks something (a movie, book, poem) down into parts and examines how the parts affect the whole

process analysis

a rhetorical mode that explains how something works, how to do something, or how something was done; also explains a subject clearly and logically, marking major steps, stages, or phases of a process

description

a rhetorical mode that includes detail like narration does, but differs in the fact that it “paints a picture” to establish mood or atmosphere; clear, vivid writing and emotionally charged language is often more persuasive

classification

a rhetorical mode that involves sorting information into categories (what goes together and why?)

narration

a rhetorical mode that recounts anecdotes, events (personal experience or obtained knowledge); shares a personal story

ambiguity

a vagueness of meaning; a conscious lack of clarity meant to evoke multiple meanings or interpretations

detail

facts, observations, and incidents used to develop a subject and impart voice

tone

is the expression of attitude; the writer’s (or narrator’s) implied attitude toward his subject and audience

summary

providing the main points of a larger work

paraphrase

putting a text into your own words by changing the diction and syntax and still citing the source

syntax

sentence structure - word order, sentence length, sentence focus, and punctuation

synthesis

the act of combining elements to form something new (based on sources, like document-based questions (DBQs))

rhetoric

the art of using language effectively

counter-argument

the opposition to a thesis or argument

refutation

the process of proving something wrong or false

imagery

verbal representation of sensory experience; in literature all five senses may be represented

diction

word choice

comparison/contrast

looking at similarities and/or differences

polysyndeton

the use of extra conjugations between words, phrases, or clauses

archaic diction

old fashioned or outdated choice of words

personification

attributing human qualities to a nonhuman thing

assumption

underlying beliefs

metaphor

figure of speech that says one thing is another in order to explain by direct comparison

simile

figure of speech that compares one thing to another through like or as

anaphora

repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, or lines

inversion

unconventional or atypical order of words in a sentence

periodic sentence

a sometimes long, complex sentence in which the main clause is saved until the end

cumulative sentence

a sentence in which the main clause is stated at the beginning followed by successive clauses or phrases that add meaning or description

antithesis

opposing ideas or words in parallel form (ex. it was the best of times, it was the worst of times")

asyndeton

omission of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words

hortative sentence

a sentence that exhorts or calls to action

hyperbole

exaggeration for effect

imperative sentence

sentence used to command, enjoin, implore, or entreat

allusion

a recognizable reference to another work

oxymoron

juxtaposition of contrasting words

alliteration

repetition of similar sounds in successive words

zeugma

the use of a word or words in a grammatically similar way but producing different, often incongruous meanings (ex. he took his hat and his leave)

metonymy

the use of associations or parts to represent a concept (ex. according to the crown, all hands on deck)

antimetabole

repetition of words in reverse order

parallelism

similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses

rhetorical question

figure of speech in the form of a question posed for rhetorical effect rather than for the purpose of getting an answer

polemical

argument against something (ex. using “don’t vote for candidate B” instead of “vote for candidate A”)

persona

perspective or role assumed by the speaker in order to connect with the audience

scare tactics

used to frighten readers or listeners into agreeing with the speaker; often, the speaker has no logical argument on which to fall back

equivocation

telling part of the truth, while deliberately hiding the whole truth

red herring

shifting attention away from an important issue that has no logical connection to the discussion at hand (changing the subject)

false causality / false cause / post hoc

setting up a cause and effect relationship when none exists; because A came before B, A caused B

straw man

oversimplification of an opponent’s argument to make it easier to attack

slippery slope

dire consequences will result from relatively minor causes; A will cause B, which will eventually cause Z

false dichotomy / either-or fallacy

considers only two extremes when there are one or more intermediate possibilities

sentimental appeals

appeals to the hearts of the readers so that they forget to use their minds; pathos without logos

faulty analogy

an illogical, misleading comparison between two things

false authority

agree with the writer’s assumptions based on the authority of a famous person or entity; although that person may be well-known, her or she is not an authority on the subject

hasty generalization

drawing a conclusion with insufficient, sometime selective evidence

non sequitur

a statement that does not logically relate to what comes before it; Latin for “It does not follow”

dogmatism

does not allow for discussion because the speaker presumes that his or her beliefs are beyond question; essentially, the logic is “I’m correct because I’m correct”

poisoning the well

irrelevant adverse information about a target is preemptively presented to an audience, with the intention of discrediting or ridiculing everything that the target person is about to say

ad hominem / “to the man” / character attack

criticizes an idea by pointing something out about the person who holds the idea rather than directly addressing the merit of the actual idea

begging the question / circular reasoning

assuming that parts or all of what the person claims are proven facts or proving by repeating (ex. “The death penalty is wrong because killing people is immoral”)

appeal to ignorance

occurs when you argue that your conclusion must be true, because there is no evidence against it; wrongly shifts the burden of proof away from the one making the claim

bandwagon / ad populum

an argument that you should do something because others are doing it

card-stacking / stacking the deck

ignoring counterarguments or other perspectives