Chapter 1 - Psychology 101

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Critical Thinking

Process of objectively evaluating, comparing, analyzing, and synthesizing information

Structuralism

Sought to identify the structure of mental life by identifying “elements” of conscious experience. Primary method was the use of introspection.

Functionalism

Sought to identify the functions of experience and how it helps us adapt to our surroundings (i.e., why do we experience anger and what value does it serve?)

Psychoanalytic Model

Focused on unconscious processes and unresolved conflicts that influence current behavior

Psychodynamic

Unconscious dynamics, motives, conflicts, and past experiences

Behavioral

Objective, observable, environmental influences on overt behavior; stimulus-response(S-R) relationships and consequences for behavior

Humanistic

Free will, self actualization, and human nature as naturally positive and growth seeking

Cognitive

Mental processes used in thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating

Biological

Genetic and Biological processes in the brain and other parts of the nervous system

Evolutionary

Natural selection, adaptation and reproduction

Sociocultural

Social interaction and the cultural determinants of behavior and mental processes

Biopsychosocial Model

An integrative, unifying theme that sees biological, psychological, and social processes as interrelated and interacting influences.

Basic Research

Research conducted to advance scientific knowledge(in university/laboratory)

Applied Research

Research designed to solve practical (“real world”) problems(outside laboratory)

Six steps of the scientific method

1. Question and literature review, 2. Testable hypothesis, 3. Research design, 4. Data collection and analysis, 5. Publications 6. Theory Development

Hypothesis

A tentative and testable explanation about the relationship between two or more variables; a testable prediction

Operational Definition

Precise description of how the variables in a study will be observed and measured (for example, drug abuse might be operationally defined as “the number of missed work days due to excessive use of an addictive substance”)

Statistical Significance

Statistical statement of how likely it is that a study’s result occurred merely by chance

Meta-Analysis

A statistical technique for combining and analyzing data from many studies in order to determine overall trends

Theory

A well-substantiated explanation for a phenomenon or a group of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed by previous research

Description

What is the nature of the behavior or mental process?

Explanation

Why does this behavior or mental process occur?

Prediction

When will this behavior or mental process occur?

Change

How can we bring about desired outcomes or prevent undesired outcomes?

Three Areas of Ethical Concern

1. Respecting the rights of human participants, 2. Respecting the rights of non-human animal participants, 3. Respecting the rights of psychotherapy patients

Descriptive Research

A type of research that systematically observes and records behavior and mental processes without manipulating variables; designed to meet the goal of description

Naturalistic Observation

Observation and recording behavior and mental processes in the participant’s natural state or habitat.

Survey

Research technique that questions a large sample of people to assess their behaviors and attitudes.

Case Study

In-depth study of a single research participant or a small group of individuals.

Archival Research

A descriptive research approach that studies existing data to find answers to research questions

Correlation Coefficients

Calculated by a formula that produces a number ranging from 1.00 to 1.00. Both +1.00 and –1.00 are the strongest possible relationships. As the number decreases and gets closer to 0.00, the relationship weakens.

Positive Correlation

Two variables move (or vary) in the same direction—the two factors increase or decrease together.

Negative Correlation

Two factors vary in opposite directions.

Experimental Research

A carefully controlled scientific procedure that involves the manipulation and control of variables to determine cause and effect; designed to meet the goal of explanation.

Key Features of an Experiment

•Independent variable versus dependent variable •Experimental group versus control group •Random assignment •Controlling confounding variables

Experimenter Bias

When the researcher influences the results in the expected direction

Single-Blind Study

Only the researcher, and not the participants, knows who is in either the experimental or control group

Double-Blind Study

Both the researcher and the participants are unaware of (blind to) who is in experimental or control group

Ethnocentrism

Believing one’s culture is typical of all cultures, is central and “correct,” and judging others by this standard.

Placebo

Inactive substance used as a control

Sample Bias

Occurs when research participants are not representative of the larger population

Random Assignment

Using chance methods to assign participants to experimental or control conditions

Participant Bias

Occurs when experimental conditions influence the participant’s behavior