BIOM2070 Module 2 Cram Study Guide Flashcards

Vocabulary-focused practice flashcards derived from Module 2 lecture notes, covering neurotransmitter function, receptor subtypes, memory systems, and the pathophysiology of common psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders.

Glutamate

The brain’s primary excitatory neurotransmitter that acts as the principal ‘go’ signal.

GABA

The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS that acts as the brain’s ‘brake’ by reducing neuron firing.

Glycine

An inhibitory neurotransmitter in the spinal cord and brainstem that also serves as a required co-agonist at NMDA receptors.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter that regulates movement control, reward signalling, motivation, and psychosis.

Serotonin

A monoamine neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of mood, anxiety, sleep, and nausea.

Noradrenaline

A neurotransmitter responsible for arousal, attention, and the fight-or-flight stress response.

AMPA receptor

An ionotropic glutamate receptor that allows $Na^+$ to enter the neuron quickly for fast excitation.

NMDA receptor

An ionotropic receptor that allows $Ca^{2+}$ entry and is essential for learning, memory, and synaptic plasticity.

GABA-A receptor

A fast ionotropic receptor that allows $Cl^-$ entry into the neuron, causing rapid inhibition.

GABA-B receptor

A metabotropic GPCR that produces slower inhibition by decreasing $Ca^{2+}$ entry or increasing $K^+$ exit.

Presynaptic neuron

The sending neuron that releases chemical neurotransmitters across the synaptic cleft.

Synaptic cleft

The tiny gap between neurons across which neurotransmitters diffuse to reach the target cell.

Postsynaptic neuron

The receiving neuron that contains specific receptors to detect and respond to neurotransmitters.

Vesicle

A small storage sac within the axon terminal used to store neurotransmitters prior to release.

Action potential

An electrical impulse that travels down the axon to the terminal to trigger neurotransmission.

Voltage-gated $Ca^{2+}$ channels

Channels in the axon terminal that open in response to an action potential, allowing calcium to signal neurotransmitter release.

Exocytosis

The process where vesicles fuse with the membrane to release neurotransmitters into the synapse.

Blood-brain barrier (BBB)

A protective barrier of tightly joined cells in brain capillaries that maintains internal stability by controlling entry from the blood.

Glutaminase

The enzyme used by neurons to convert glutamine into the neurotransmitter glutamate.

GAD (Glutamic acid decarboxylase)

The enzyme responsible for converting glutamate into the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA.

GABA transaminase

The enzyme responsible for the metabolic breakdown of GABA.

Strychnine

A substance that acts as a potent blocker of glycine receptors in the spinal cord and brainstem.

DAT (Dopamine transporter)

The protein responsible for the reuptake of dopamine from the synaptic cleft.

SERT (Serotonin transporter)

The transporter protein responsible for removing serotonin from the synapse, which is the target of SSRIs.

NET (Noradrenaline transporter)

The transporter responsible for the reuptake of noradrenaline from the synaptic cleft.

Nigrostriatal pathway

A dopamine pathway where loss of neurons causes Parkinson’s movement symptoms.

Mesolimbic pathway

A dopamine pathway associated with reward and emotion; overactivity contributes to hallucinations and delusions.

Mesocortical pathway

A dopamine pathway where low levels contribute to the negative and cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia.

Tuberoinfundibular pathway

A dopamine pathway that regulates prolactin control; its blockade can lead to increased prolactin levels.

Excitotoxicity

Neuronal damage caused by excessive glutamate and $Ca^{2+}$ entry, which activates damaging intracellular enzymes.

Positive allosteric modulator

A substance, such as a benzodiazepine, that binds to a separate site on a receptor to enhance the effect of the natural neurotransmitter.

Hippocampus

A brain region acting as a memory hub that is essential for the formation of new declarative memories.

Amygdala

A brain area involved in emotional memory, contributing to the power of memories associated with strong emotions.

Patient HM

A famous patient who developed anterograde amnesia after the removal of medial temporal structures to treat epilepsy.

Anterograde amnesia

The inability to form new long-term declarative memories after a brain injury or surgery.

Declarative memory

Conscious memory involving facts and events that a person can state explicitly.

Episodic memory

A sub-type of declarative memory relating to personal events and experiences.

Semantic memory

A sub-type of declarative memory relating to general facts and objective knowledge.

Non-declarative memory

Unconscious memory for skills, habits, and conditioning that does not require conscious recall.

Procedural memory

Memory for motor skills and habits, such as typing, walking, or riding a bike.

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

The strengthening of a synapse following repeated activation, serving as a cellular mechanism for learning.

Magnesium ($Mg^{2+}$) block

A block that prevents NMDA receptor activation until the postsynaptic cell is depolarised by AMPA receptors.

CAMKII

An enzyme activated by $Ca^{2+}$ entry during LTP that increases the activity and number of AMPA receptors.

CREB

A transcription factor triggered by $Ca^{2+}$ signalling that promotes gene expression for long-term synaptic strengthening.

Alzheimer's disease

A progressive neurodegenerative disorder involving amyloid plaques, tau tangles, and significant cognitive decline.

Amyloid plaques

Abnormal build-ups of amyloid-beta protein outside neurons that disrupt synapses and promote inflammation.

Neurofibrillary tangles

Abnormal tau protein structures inside neurons that cause the failure of microtubule support and transport.

Cholinergic deficit

A reduction in acetylcholine signalling that contributes to the impaired memory and cognition seen in Alzheimer’s.

Donepezil

A cholinesterase inhibitor used to temporarily support cognitive function in Alzheimer’s patients by reducing acetylcholine breakdown.

Memantine

An NMDA receptor antagonist that reduces excessive glutamate activity and excitotoxic stress in Alzheimer’s disease.

Monoamine hypothesis of depression

The theory that depression is linked to reduced signalling of serotonin, noradrenaline, and dopamine.

SSRIs

Antidepressants that block the serotonin reuptake transporter to increase synaptic serotonin levels.

SNRIs

Medications that block the reuptake of both serotonin and noradrenaline to treat depression and anxiety.

TCAs

Older antidepressants that block monoamine reuptake but cause more side effects due to interaction with multiple receptors.

MAOIs

Medications that inhibit the monoamine oxidase enzyme to prevent the breakdown of monoamine neurotransmitters.

Adaptive anxiety

A normal and useful response to threat or pressure, such as studying before an exam.

Pathological anxiety

Excessive and persistent anxiety that impairs life, often involving constant worry or avoidance behaviours.

CBT (Cognitive Behavioral Therapy)

A therapy used to treat anxiety and depression by identifying thought patterns and changing fear responses.

Schizophrenia

A psychiatric disorder characterized by dopamine dysregulation, leading to positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms.

Positive symptoms

Extra experiences added to a patient’s reality in schizophrenia, including hallucinations and delusions.

Negative symptoms

Loss of normal functions in schizophrenia, such as reduced emotional expression, social withdrawal, and low motivation.

Cognitive symptoms

Thinking impairments in schizophrenia, such as poor attention, memory, and executive planning.

extrapyramidal movement symptoms

Side effects caused by the blockade of dopamine D2 receptors in the nigrostriatal pathway.

Neurodegeneration

The progressive loss or dysfunction of neurons, often appearing late after the nervous system can no longer compensate.

Parkinson’s disease

A disease involving the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, leading to movement deficits.

TRAP

An acronym for Parkinson’s motor symptoms: Tremor, Rigidity, Akinesia/bradykinesia, and Postural instability.

Levodopa

A dopamine precursor that crosses the blood-brain barrier to be converted into dopamine within the brain.

Huntington’s disease

An autosomal dominant genetic disease involving the loss of striatal GABAergic neurons and excessive involuntary movement.

Motor neuron disease (MND)

A neurodegenerative disease causing muscle weakness and wasting due to the death of neurons that signal to muscles.

Seizure

A sudden episode of uncontrolled, abnormal, and synchronised electrical activity caused by excessive neuronal firing.