Displaced Citizenship Revision

How is citizenship a ‘slippery’ concept?

It is dynamic and multifaceted and can be understood as a legal category, a claim, an identity, a tool in nation building etc.; it operated on many scales and is malleable so will always change in response to conflict

How is a feminist analysis of citizenship useful?

It shifts an analysis of ambiguous space where citizenship is embodied and operates at many sites; this offers an accountable, intersectional understanding of power, space and affect by recognising marginalised voices

How does war lead to displacement and where do restrictions come into play here?

Individuals are often forced to leave their homes during war to protect themselves from violence; there are challenges in new countries such as the cost of passports, visas, documentation as well as othering from communities fuelled by anti-migrant common-sense; this disrupts regimes of citizenship

When did the Syrian Civil War begin?

2011

How did the Syrian Civil War 2011 expose the challenges of wartime displacement?

3 million Syrian refugees fled to Turkey but the Turkish people felt threatened by the proximity of the Syrian people and their disconnect led to discourses of ‘us’ and ‘them’ reified in spatial organisation undermining the principle of Muslim unity; this stemmed from the Turkish people’s inability to understand the pain caused by the conflict and left the Syrian people stateless (Gokariksel & Secor, 2020)

When did the Contra War break out and where?

1980s in Rio San Juan, Nicaragua

How did the Contra War 1980s expose the challenges of wartime displacement?

Here almost 30,000 people sought refuge in Costa Rica having to leave their land quickly in a humiliating attempt to find shuttler in a foreign country where refugees were deprived of resources and social bases leading to huge material and emotional loss; the war used a huge amount of national budget on defence leading to widespread poverty for those who returned to destitution; lives remain overshadowed by war through hostility towards the government’s insufficient reconciliation, tension causing physical illness and distrust between neighbours; SAPs also marginalise women (Nygren, 2003)

How do wartime discourses impact citizenship regime?

Discourses emerging from warfare can mould and change citizenship for marginalised groups to form new models

When did the Second Intifada in begin and where?

Palestine in 2000

How did the Palestinian Second Intifada shift wartime discourses?

Humanitarian aid targets children through a mission to relieve trauma as it was accepted untreated youth trauma left untreated would escalate into future aggression and ‘risky’ subjects; this medical trauma discourse sterilised the political setting and reduced children to symptoms to be treated to undermine their ability to heal, understand the conflict and develop into political actors; to be a child was to be helpless and detached from the state (Marshall, 2013)

How did armed conflict in Belfast shift wartime discourses?

Men were perceived as violent, action oriented citizens where women were condemned to the role of compassionate, domestic wives; this was reified in space as the public became closed as masculine and political with women excluded and enclosed in the home (Dowler, 1998)

How can new forms of citizenship arise from war and what are key forms of this?

War can construct new forms of citizenship, new communities and meanings; this is a creative destruction of citizenship regimes to form post national, transactional of multi-species citizenships

Who are key actors in forming new transnational citizenships and when was this evidenced?

The youth are central as their lives are increasingly entangled with international politics and they are able to maintain connections with friends and family over large distanced though social media; the global youth are therefore more likely to take on diverse political perspectives and favour transnational citizenships as seen in global protests against the Iraq War 2003

What revolution forms the ‘largest nation without a state’ and where?

Rojava Revolution, northern Syrian Kurdish regions

How is the Rojava Revolution forming a transnational citizenship?

The Kurdish people impacted by the Syrian war seek to detach from the state as they see it as undemocratic and limited; instead they favour a holistic citizenship operating across all spheres of live driven by participatory democracy instead of state dominance; this sees the Kurdish people pursue a transnational model to bring greater prosperity and peace across the Middle East and global zones of conflict (Dirik, 2022)

Where has an example of multi species citizenship arisen?

Rive Una, Bihac, Bosnia

How has multi species citizenship formed at the River Una?

During the Bosnian War the river became an active space of community and joy against a bleak period of war; the people saw their relationship with the river intensify as it took more care of them than the state did, motivating a new form of riverine citizenship (Hromadzic, 2024)

How is the death of asylum demonstrated?

Money invested in walls, fences, interception and detention rather than in processing claims and legal avenues; doors are closed and asylum is demonised in public discourse with subjects seen as illegal security threats

When and where did the death of asylum begin?

In the Caribbean Sea in the 1980s when the US intercepted, detained and returned Haitian and Cuban nationals to stop them from landing on their territory and making a claim; this has since advanced

How is the hotel transformed into a place of everyday bordering, what paradigm does this form?

Hotels are central for accommodating and containing asylum seeker and refugees but detach them from everyday life and produce value through being open to ‘genuine’ refugees but differentiating and expelling others; cultural association of the hotel is with leisure and care but this is in tension with a space of emergency and detention forming a contradictory logic of ‘carceral hospitality’

How does ‘carceral hospitality’ represent wider refuge struggles?

This intersection of care and control represents the wider struggles of liberal democracies in reconciling international obligations to provide refuge with a desire to deter those seeking asylum and manage migration

How should borders be conceptualised as violent?

Borders are not a natural part of the world but instead a source of violence on many levels from visible bodily harm to psychological, maldevelopment, deprivation and environmental harms; they are inherently violent

How can the border be reconceptualised as a ‘borderscape’?

The borderscape is a space where complex and entangled tensions play out; border are not linear, stable, unchanging and definitive in place but instead mobile, relational and contested everyday processes felt at the level of the body; there is also an opportunity to shift from ‘politics of fear’ at the border to ‘politics of hope’ in acknowledging possibilities for resistance and knowledge production

How do women experience the border?

Women are subject to many vulnerabilities, particularly in relation to sexual and gender based violence but there is also a possibility for resistance

At which border has a slow violence of waiting been formed?

US-Mexico border

How has a slow violence of waiting been formed at the US-Mexico border?

Transformations to the border through asylum policies and COVID led to the formation of an informal waiting list, ‘La Lista’ that extends to the experience of waiting as a state and disciplinary practice of exclusion as refugees are often forced to wait indefinitely and claims can be delayed or blocked; shelters are dingoes with a lack of privacy, strict rules, limited personal freedom, sexual abuse etc. compelling a slow violence leading to serious psychological consequences (Torres et al., 2023)

How was migrant agency formed at the US-Mexico border?

Lists allowed people to make themselves visible to the state, assert their right to legal standing and become legible to border authorities; solidarity and organisation between women also formed as they would share information on the list, coordinate visits to the administrator, share resources, look after children and share access to education (Torres et al., 2023)

At which border is the ‘right to maim’ used?

Bosnia/Serbia-EU border

How is the ‘right to maim’ used at the Bosnia/Serbia-EU border?

The use of less-than-deadly harms attempts to block asylum claims through immediate bodily effects such as beating at the border, this also works to discourage further border transgressions alongside slow violence in shelters lacking facilities where injuries do not health and slower infections develop; this falls below the threshold of liberal acceptability to use non-lethal violence as a form of biopolitical control and state violence at the border by eroding the capacity of people on the move (Davies et al., 2026)

At what border does immigration law enact legal violence?

US-Mexico border

How does immigration law enact legal violence at the US-Mexico border and for whom?

Immigration law leads to adverse health outcomes for pregnant and post-natal women in abusive relationships as they become entrapped in relationships at a time of greater emotional and financial vulnerability; for Sara this was due to the burden of evidence and finance to complete documentation when not working, for Sofi her marriage allowed her to access prenatal care but the stress of abuse and her immigration status led to embodied health vulnerabilities as both her children were born at low weights (Solis & Heckert, 2020)

Where and how is belonging remapped?

In Athens people come together in circulations of nonlinear geographies, anti-border struggles, anti-colonial pasts/futures and mobilisations as new choreographies in dance circles find belonging in footworks and steps outside of the restrictive rhythms of the nation in spatial resistance; cultures come together in diverse traditions to deliberately step out of restrictive rhythms of national citizenship to form a space of belonging, liberation and anti colonial sentiment (Western, 2023)

Where is grassroots humanitarianism taking place, what is a key organisation in this and when was it set up?

Calais with Play4Calais set up in 2015

How is Play4Calais forming new possibilities in Calais?

Calais is subject to much violence and a lack of aid from the French State but grassroots humanitarian organisations reshape this into a contested terrain where inclusion nd rights are produced; Play4Calais was set up in 2015 as an apolitical pop up cinema initiative to provide hope, escapism, therapy and humanity; they also set up a new sports field with shirts reading ‘WE ARE HUMAN’ to centre rights based narratives; after witnessing the destruction of community spaces they lobbies against the oppression of the French state and were successful in making claims for ‘rightless’ refugees and reconfiguring possibility, resistance, compassion and solidarity (McGee & Pelham, 2018)

What is a diaspora?

Connections between groups across different nation scales derived from an original homeland to form new identities on a world scale across national borders; this disrupts the containerisation of nation states and forms heterogenous identities

How can diaspora be strategised by the state?

Diaspora strategies are aimed at professional and business class migrants as governments wish to enhance their global competitiveness in the knowledge based economy, they mobilise human capital and international business links to develop global economic links and asserting their right to govern outside of physical boundaries; elite mobility is encouraged through tax breaks and institutions of belonging to see human movement become the duty of the state

Which state has evidenced managed diaspora and what institutions were set up to encourage this?

The Canadian state uses web portals, electronic newsletters and the Ministry of Canadians Abroad to encourage political and economic leverage and global interconnection beyond the Canadian border (Ho, 2011)

What is pragmatic citizenship?

A kind of citizenship used to recreate citizenship to make it more relevant and inclusive for migrants, women and those marginalised in diasporas; this can allow for multiple feelings of belonging and political loyalties; citizenship is decoupled from national identity to form flexible, pragmatic regimes

Which diaspora has evidenced pragmatic citizenship?

Palestinian diaspora in Athens

How has the Palestinian diaspora in Athens evidenced pragmatic citizenship?

Palestinians desire to attain Greek citizenship without letting go of feelings of belonging to their homeland, they see the holding of passports as allowing for travel, protection and security without strong feelings towards the Greek state; this does not weaken their attachment to Palestine but instead strengthens their ability to support the cause abroad and find security and community (Mavroudi, 2008)

Where does racial subordination occur in a diaspora?

The Black Mediterranean

How does racial subordination occur in the Black Mediterranean?

Black migrants symbolise instability and insecurity of space and they are excluded from human rights, political asylum and territorial citizenship; black people endure disproportionate levels of violence, abuse and danger as a result of ensuring discourses on the Black refugee as a criminal threat; multiple racisms continue to operate in diasporas but resistance can also be reactualised here (Proglio, 2021)

Where do ethnic divides continue to be reproduced through the city?

Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina

How do ethnic divides continue in Mostar?

The city is divided into two main ethnic groups by infrastructure such as the Old Bridge that designates spaces of Bosnian/Muslim and Croatian/Catholic populations, this constantly shifts and is negotiate day forms difficult affective identities when crossed to form a sticky space; everyday activities of the youth are confidential to designated spaces to reify the imaginary divide; this is also narrates through place names, words, sayings etc. as well as the schooling system lacking a common curriculum; affective experiences of discomfort limit agency to bridge this ethnic divide (Laketa, 2017)

How do university spaces contribute to the creation of global citizenship, what is the contradiction here?

Higher education creates global citizens by encouraging global generosity and justice oriented conditions; however, this ignores issues of racial inequality and injustice that can be seen in attention to housekeeping and student activism to raise questions over who is excluded and included in this global cosmopolis; global education shields the university as a form of global flows, gendered and racialised divisions, colonialism and white supremacy raising questions on who has the right to university spaces

At which university do student activists seek to resist local inequalities and how?

University of North Carolina student activists attempt to draw attention to race, ethnicity and social reproductive labour to show how the legacy of structural racism is evident across the university from the classroom climate to ethnic minority dominated housekeeping staff who remain in the lowest paid, poorest condition jobs; this demands attention to social inequalities and the formation of a newly socially just space (Dimpfl & Smith, 2018)

Where and when was the influence of new discursive and global spaces seen?

Senegale 2012 Presidential Elections

How was youth action inspired in the Senegalese Presidential Elections 2012, how did this become global?

The urban youth led a huge opposition movement leading to the defeat of President Wade through the engagement of rappers and the power of hip hop as a medium of political identity and a language of resistance; a network of virtual, audio and urban spaces allowed rapers oo use politicised messages on the legitimacy of Wade’s candidacy in new discursive spaces for those who have previously been marginalised at the city fringes; this connects to global citizenship as rap is a language of local but also global diasporas of youth protest especially for the global Black diaspora who share legacies of struggle (Fredericks, 2013)