Bio lab final study

Cell

The smallest structural functional unit of an organism.

What are all organisms composed of?

Cells

Implications of Cell Theory

1. All life is cellular. 2. All cells in a population of single-celled organisms are related by common ancestry.

Components of Cells

1. Cell/Plasma Membrane. 2. Ribosomes. 3. Nucleic Acids

Cell/Plasma Membrane

Selectively permeable; decides what can go in the cell.

Nucleic Acids

Needed to synthesize DNA/RNA and for cell reproduction. Building blocks for DNA.

Ribosomes

Make protein needed for cellular function.

Enzymes

Protein catalysts used to increase the rate of biological reactions.

Types of cells life is composed of

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic.

Characteristics of Prokaryotes

1. Very small. 2. No nucleus. 3. Fine with mutations. 4. DNA material is very unstable. 5. No membrane organelles. 6. Unicellular.

Nucleus

DNA is stored within it.

Unicellular

It can reproduce and maintain itself.

Membrane-bound organelles

Organelles surrounded by membranes. They have specific functions.

Characteristics of Eukaryotes

1. Very large. 2. Have nucleus. 3. Have membrane-bound organelles. 4. Not fine with mutations. 5. Multicellular.

Multicellular

Cannot live by itself. It will only live by getting help from other cells.

Most life on Earth

Bacteria.

Bacteria cell type

Prokaryotic.

Archaea cell type

Prokaryotic.

Eukaryota cell type

Eukaryotic; consists of plants, animals, and fungi.

Domain of life with the most diversity on Earth

Bacteria.

Three domains of life

Bacteria, Eukaryota, Archaea.

Domain of life with the most morphological diversity

Eukaryotes.

Morphologically

Differences in characteristics, such as height, looks, or hair.

Why bacteria are so diverse

Bacteria have been on Earth for years and have had time to develop way more variants.

Major lineages

1. Animalia. 2. Microbial Eukaryotes. 3. Fungi. 4. Plantae.

Hierarchical classification of life

1. Domain. 2. Kingdom. 3. Phylum. 4. Class. 5. Order. 6. Family. 7. Genus. 8. Species.

Classification levels used to classify organisms

Genus and Species.

Colonial organisms

A collection of unicellular organisms living together.

Respiration

The process the body uses to release energy from digested food, such as glucose.

Inputs for respiration

Sugar + Oxygen.

Outputs of respiration

Water + Carbon Dioxide + ATP.

When your body releases the most water

When you exhale.

Are everybody’s cells respiring?

Yes.

How heterotrophs get energy

From eating other organisms.

Heterotrophs

Organisms that obtain food by consuming other living things; they cannot make their own food. Examples include humans, dogs, and bears.

How autotrophs get energy

They automatically make their own food/energy.

Autotrophs

Producers, such as plants.

Metabolism

Rate of energy use by all cells of an individual. The sum of all energy used by cells.

How to calculate metabolism

1. Measuring how much energy you eat. 2. Measuring how much you respire/oxygen you use.

Endotherms

Animals that gain most of their body heat from internal metabolic processes, such as cellular respiration. Example

Ectotherms

Animals that gain most of their body heat from external sources instead of metabolic processes.

How endotherms maintain internal temperature

Their metabolism is always running at a constant rate; therefore, their body heat stays constant.

Normal human temperature

98°F.

How ectotherms maintain temperature

They also have an internal engine; however, they have the power to turn it off whenever they want.

Do ectotherms’ internal temperatures vary?

Yes.

Where ectotherms get energy

From their environments.

How endotherms gain heat

From internal metabolic processes.

How ectotherms gain heat

From outside sources instead of metabolic processes, such as their environment and behavior.

Homeotherms

Animals that have a constant body temperature.

Are homeotherms strictly endotherms?

No, a homeotherm can be endothermic or ectothermic.

Are ectotherms strictly heterotherms?

No, they can also be homeotherms or heterotherms.

Heterotherms

Organisms that allow their body temperature to rise or fall depending on environmental conditions.

Why body temperature matters

Reactions occur faster at higher temperatures, but enzymes have an optimal temperature at which they work best.

Central dogma of biology

DNA → RNA → Protein.

RNA

Single stranded.

DNA

Double stranded; the double helix.

Regulatory systems

Located at the end and start of DNA.

Exons

Coding parts of DNA that code for certain proteins, which results in certain genes.

Introns

Non-coding parts of DNA. They do not code for certain proteins; they stabilize the DNA.

Phenotype

Similar definition to morphology. Phenotype is what you look like on the outside.

Genotypes

Gene differences. You cannot see genotypes.

What exons influence

Genotypes.

Transposons

1. DNA sequences that can change positions within the genome. 2. Can alter a cell’s genome size and sometimes create or reverse mutation. 3. Can stop the mutation or make it stop coding for proteins.

ALU-PV92 size

300 bp.

Location of Alu-PV92

Located on an intron; it does not show up in phenotypes.

ALU-PV92 negative (-)

550 bp.

ALU-PV92 positive (+)

850 bp.

Both DNA strands ALU-PV92 positive (+)

Both strands are 850 bp.

Both DNA strands ALU-PV92 negative (-)

Both strands are 550 bp.

One DNA strand ALU-PV92 positive (+) and one negative (-)

One strand is 550 bp and one is 850 bp.

Why DNA isolation is necessary

We want to release DNA without damaging it and separate it from other cellular components like proteins and RNA, allowing for specific analysis and manipulation of the DNA.

Three steps of PCR lab process

1. DNA Isolation. 2. PCR

Denaturing

Heat unzips DNA.

Annealing

Primer binds to the start of the target DNA sequence. Primers tell DNA polymerase where to start copying DNA.

Extension/Elongation

New nucleotides are added by DNA polymerase called Taq Polymerase, which builds new DNA.

Hypothesis

A statement that can be tested.

Prediction

Mentions the dependent variable collected in an experiment; more specific than a hypothesis and more specific to an experiment testing a hypothesis.

Independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent variable

The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the researcher is interested.

Control variable

A variable that is kept constant during a controlled experiment.

Replication

Ensures results are due to the independent variable and not random chance.

Main two ideas of cell theory

All organisms are made up of cells, and all cells arise from existing cells.

Cell Theory

1. All organisms are made up of cells. 2. All cells come from preexisting cells. 3. Populations of single-celled organisms all have a common ancestor cell. 4. All cells in multicellular organisms arose from one cell.

Scientific Method

1. Observing. 2. Questioning. 3. Hypothesis. 4. Experiment. 5. Conclusion. 6. Result.

When gel electrophoresis occurs

After DNA Isolation and PCR.

DNA sugar-phosphate backbone charge

Negative.

If negative goes toward another negative

It will move away from the negative.

What DNA strands do in gel electrophoresis

DNA strands separate in the gel according to size.

Gel Red

A nucleic acid gel dye used to visualize DNA and RNA in agarose and polyacrylamide gels.

How to set up gel electrophoresis

Remove dams, pour buffer, and load DNA/sample.

What happens when an electric current runs through a gel

The DNA migrates down the current.

Longer DNA strands

Slower.

Shorter DNA strands

Faster.

Gel reads ++

Homozygous present (++).

Gel reads --

Homozygous absent (--).

Gel reads +-

Heterozygous.

DNA ladder

Acts like a ruler to compare samples to.

How to read heterozygous in gel

One band will be lower and another will be on top.

How to read homozygous present

Only one band is on top/farther up.

How to read homozygous absent

Only one band is lower.