final exam bio

Autophagy

The process by which a cell cleans up its damaged components by breaking them down and recycling them.

Lysosomes

Organelles known as digestive organelles that break down damaged proteins and organelles using hydrolytic enzymes.

COP I and COP II

Proteins that direct vesicle transport; COP I transports vesicles from the Golgi back to the ER, while COP II transports vesicles from the ER to the Golgi.

Clathrin

A protein that coats vesicles transporting materials to endosomes and lysosomes, facilitating endocytosis.

Endocytosis

The process by which cells engulf external substances, forming vesicles that bring them into the cell.

Turgor Pressure

The pressure exerted by the fluid inside the vacuole of a plant cell against the cell wall, maintaining cell structure and rigidity.

Tonoplast

The membrane surrounding the central vacuole in plant cells, involved in maintaining homeostasis and storage.

Microtubules

The largest cytoskeletal elements that provide structure, support, and aid in intracellular transport.

Dynamic Instability

The rapid growth and shrinkage of microtubules, crucial for cell division and intracellular transport.

Kinesin and Dynein

Motor proteins that transport cellular cargo along microtubules; kinesin moves towards the plus end while dynein moves towards the minus end.

Phagocytosis

A type of endocytosis where cells engulf large particles, pathogens, or debris, leading to their degradation in lysosomes.

Autophagosome

A vesicle formed during autophagy that encapsulates damaged organelles or proteins before fusing with lysosomes.

Transmembrane protein

Proteins that span the entire membrane, playing critical roles in cellular function.

Golgi apparatus

An organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery.

Endocytosis

The process by which cells internalize substances from their external environment.

Peroxisomes

Small organelles involved in the breakdown of fatty acids and detoxifying harmful substances.

Zellweger syndrome

A genetic disorder caused by malfunctioning peroxisomes, leading to developmental defects.

Hydrogen peroxide

A reactive oxygen species that can kill bacteria but can damage cells at high levels.

Cystic fibrosis

A genetic disorder caused by a mutation that affects the CFTR protein, leading to mucus buildup.

Mucins

Large glycoproteins that form mucus when hydrated, secreted by specialized epithelial cells.

Lysosome

Membrane-bound organelles containing enzymes for breaking down waste and cellular debris.

Autophagy

The process by which cells recycle damaged organelles and proteins.

Coat proteins

Proteins that aid in the formation of vesicles and selection of cargo during intracellular transport.

Signal recognition particle (SRP)

A protein-RNA complex that recognizes and targets proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum.

Catalase enzyme

An enzyme that breaks down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.

Cytoskeleton

A structural network within cells that helps maintain shape, provides support, and facilitates movement.

Signal sequence

A short peptide that directs the transport of the protein to specific locations within the cell.

Endomembrane system

A series of membranes in eukaryotic cells that facilitates the transport and modification of proteins.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

An organelle that plays a key role in the synthesis of proteins and lipids.

Rough ER

A type of endoplasmic reticulum coated with ribosomes, primarily involved in protein synthesis.

Smooth ER

A type of endoplasmic reticulum without ribosomes, involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification.

Apoptosis

The process of programmed cell death in multicellular organisms.

Caspases

A family of cysteine proteases that play essential roles in programmed cell death.

Calcium signaling

The use of calcium ions (Ca²⁺) as signaling molecules within cells, important for various cellular processes.

Glycosylation

The enzymatic process that attaches carbohydrates to proteins or lipids.

Signal recognition particle (SRP)

A ribonucleoprotein that recognizes and targets specific proteins for the endoplasmic reticulum.

Translation

The process by which ribosomes synthesize proteins using messenger RNA (mRNA).

Polypeptide

A chain of amino acids bonded together, which folds into functional proteins.

Start codon

The nucleotide triplet (AUG) that signals the start of translation.

Stop codon

Nucleotide triplets that signal the termination of protein synthesis.

Chaperones

Proteins that assist in the proper folding of other proteins.

Translasm

The channel or complex in the ER through which newly synthesized polypeptides are translocated.

Endomembrane system

A network of membranes within the cell that compartmentalizes cellular functions.

Golgi apparatus

An organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles.

Exocytosis

The process of vesicles fusing with the membrane to release their contents outside the cell.

Endocytosis

The process of internalizing substances into the cell via vesicles.

C-terminal and N-terminal

The two ends of a polypeptide chain; one end has a carboxyl group and the other has an amino group.

Apoptosis

A controlled process in which cells intentionally destroy themselves when they are damaged or no longer needed.

Necrosis

Accidental cell death that occurs due to injury or disease, as opposed to programmed apoptosis.

Mitochondria

Known as the powerhouse of the cell, responsible for producing ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.

Cytochrome c

A protein involved in the electron transport chain; its release from mitochondria signals apoptosis.

Caspases

Enzymes that play an essential role in programmed cell death, activating the apoptotic process.

Endomembrane system

A system of membranes within the cell that includes the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vesicles, involved in protein synthesis and transport.

Intracellular signaling

The process of communication within a cell that leads to its functions and responses, including pathways that trigger apoptosis.

Phagocytosis

The process by which cells engulf and digest cellular debris and apoptotic cells.

Exocytosis

The process by which substances are expelled from the cell through vesicular transport.

Endocytosis

The process by which cells take in materials by engulfing them in vesicles.

Endosymbiotic Theory

The theory that explains the origin of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic cells, specifically how mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from engulfed prokaryotic organisms.

Mitochondria

Double-membraned organelles that harness energy from food through cellular respiration and produce ATP.

Aerobic Respiration

A form of respiration that occurs in the presence of oxygen, producing ATP by breaking down glucose.

Chloroplasts

Organelles found in plant cells that conduct photosynthesis, converting light energy into chemical energy.

Pyruvate

The end product of glycolysis, which is further processed in the mitochondria.

Glycolysis

The first stage of glucose breakdown occurring in the cytoplasm, where glucose is broken down into pyruvate.

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

A sequence of reactions in the mitochondria that generates electron carriers and ATP from pyruvate.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

The primary energy currency of the cell, produced during cellular respiration.

Oxidative Phosphorylation

The process of ATP production based on the transfer of electrons in the electron transport chain.

Substrate-Level Phosphorylation

The generation of ATP from ADP by direct transfer of a phosphate group during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

A series of protein complexes located in the inner mitochondrial membrane that transfers electrons and pumps protons to generate ATP.

Chemiosmosis

The movement of protons across a membrane, driving the synthesis of ATP by ATP synthase.

NADH and FADH2

High-energy electron carriers produced during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle, which donate electrons to the electron transport chain.

Electrochemical Gradient

A difference in concentration and charge across a membrane, crucial for ATP production during chemiosmosis.

Water as a Byproduct

The final product of cellular respiration formed when oxygen accepts electrons at complex IV of the electron transport chain.

Proton Pumping

The process by which protons are transported across the mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton gradient necessary for ATP synthesis.

Electron Transport Chain

A series of complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane that transfer electrons and pump protons to generate ATP through chemiosmosis.

Chemiosmosis

The process of ATP synthesis driven by the movement of protons across a membrane.

Proton Pumping

The process of protons being moved from a low concentration to a high concentration against their gradient during electron transport.

Photosynthesis

The process by which plants and certain bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy, typically producing glucose from carbon dioxide and water.

NADPH

An electron carrier that is produced during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, used in the Calvin cycle.

Calvin Cycle

The light-independent reactions of photosynthesis that use ATP and NADPH to convert carbon dioxide into glucose.

Thylakoid Membrane

The membrane-bound structures within chloroplasts where the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

The primary energy carrier in living organisms, produced during both cellular respiration and photosynthesis.

Chlorophyll

The green pigment found in plants and algae that is crucial for absorbing light energy during photosynthesis.

Light-Dependent Reactions

The reactions in photosynthesis that require light to produce ATP and NADPH.

Photosystem I (PS I)

A protein complex involved in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis that absorbs light and converts it into chemical energy.

Photosystem II (PS II)

A protein complex that uses light energy to split water and generate high-energy electrons for the electron transport chain.

Cyclic Electron Transport

A process in photosynthesis that produces ATP only without the production of NADPH.

Autotroph

Organisms, like plants and algae, that can produce their own food through photosynthesis.

Heterotroph

Organisms that cannot produce their own food and must consume other living things for energy.

Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

A dynamic extracellular structure that supports cells, facilitates cell-cell interaction, and is critical for tissue scaffolding.

Function of ECM

Includes cell adhesion, communication, structural support, serving as a barrier, and filtering substances.

Cell Wall

A protective layer surrounding plant cells, composed mainly of cellulose, that allows for molecule passage.

Integrin

A membrane protein that binds to the cytoskeleton and facilitates cell attachment and movement.

Collagen

A protein found in the ECM that provides structural support to tissues.

Elastin

A protein in the ECM that allows tissues to return to their original shape after stretching or contracting.

Proteoglycan

Proteins that are heavily glycosylated, found in the ECM, that aid in hydration and structural support.

Fibronectin

A glycoprotein of the ECM that helps in cell adhesion and promotes cell migration.

Plasmodesmata

Openings between plant cells that connect their cytoplasm, allowing for transport and communication.

Cellulose

A polysaccharide that provides structural support in plant cell walls.

Central Vacuole

A large vacuole in plant cells that stores substances and helps maintain turgor pressure.

Aging and ECM

Wrinkles may develop due to the incorrect repair of ECM fibers, leading to altered and broken collagen.