U3 AOS2 Psych - Learning

Learning Def

the process of acquiring knowledge

2 ways if understanding language

The Behaviourist Approach
Social Cognitive Approach

What is the Social Cognitive Approach and what does it include

involve theories that propose learning takes place in a social setting an involves various cognitive processes

o Observational Learning

What is The Behaviourist Approach and what does it include

theories that propose learning occurs through observable interactions between an individual and stimuli in the environment through conditioning

o CC and OC

Conditioning Def

The process of learning associations between a stimulus in the environment and a behavioural response

Classical Conditioning Def

a model of learning through the involuntary association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus that results in a conditioned response

What are the learner and response like in CC

o Involuntary response
o Passive Learner

What are the stimulis/response of CC

Neutral Stimulus (NS): any stimulus that does not normally produce a predictable response

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) : stimulus that consistently produces a naturally occurring

3 phases of CC

1. Before Conditioning
   The NS elicits no relevant response
   UCS elicits involuntary response (UCR)

2. During Conditioning
   The NS is repeatedly presented before the UCS which elicited the UCR
   Within 0.6 seconds

3. After Conditioning
   The CS produced the CR

What was Ian Pavlov's experiment

A study on dogs which demonstrated CC

What happend in Ian's pavlov's experiment

The dogs salivated each time food was given to them

Pavlov would sound a tone and then give the dogs the food |

The dogs then began to salivate to the sound of the bell alone.

What were the stimuli's/responses in Pavlov's

• NS: the bell
• UCS: the food
• UCR: salivating (for the food)
• CS: the bell
• CR: salivating (for the bell)

What happend in John Watson and Rayner and Little Albert experiment

1. 
   Little Albert was allowed to play with the white rat and showed no fear
   2.
   Little Albert showed a fear response (crying) when a steel bar was struck with a hammer just behind his head
   3.
   Watson paired the loud noise with the white rat whenever Little Albert tried to reach out for the rat
   4.
   Little Albert began to show a fear response when only the white rat was presented after multiple pairings
   5.
   Stimulus generalisation to all white or furry stimuli
   6.
   Mother moved away with him prior to experiment ending -> Watson and Rayner did not get the chance to extinguish this fear response

What were the simulis/responses in Little Albert

• NS: the rat

• UCS: the loud noise

• UCR: being startled

Ethical considerations of Little Albert

o Voluntary Participation (too young -> parents needed to do this for them but no record that his mother was present during trials)

o Withdrawal Rights (was ot withdrawn when showing distress)

o Informed Consent (mother not fully aware)

o Confidentiality (Albert's name

Association

the pairing or linking of one stimulus with another stimulus.

o A stimulus that would not normally produce a particular automatic response is associated with the Neutral Stimulus

Acquisition

the overall process during which an organism learns to associate two events (the NS and the UCS)

Classical Conditioning Proccesses

Stimulus Generalisation
Stimulus Discrimination
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery

What is Stimulus Generalisation in CC

the tendency for another similar stimulus (to the CS) to produce a response which is similar

What is Stimulus Discrimination in CC

The ability of an organism to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and other similar stimuli

What is Extinction in CC

the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of the CR when the UCS is no longer presented.
• CR is extinct when it no longer occurs when the CS is presented

What is Spontaneous Recovery in CC

the reappearance of the CR when the CS is presented

Survival Value of Classical Conditioning

fundamental to the survival and development of all animals

exist across the animal kingdom.

 Learning through CC has been preserved across evolution because the survival of all animals depends on learning which stimuli in the environment predicts threatening situations and which stimuli predict situations that benefit survival.

when we learn an association between CS and UCS the CR prepares our body for what is likely to happen next

Operant Conditioning

3 phase learning process that involves an antecedent

What are the paerticipants and response like in OC

• active participant

• voluntary response

3 phase model of OC

1. 
   Antecedent (what happened before)
   a) The stimulus that precedes a specific behaviour.
2. 
   Behaviour (what happens)
   a) The voluntary action that occurs in the presence of the antecedent stimulus
3. 
   Consequence (what happens after)
   a) The environmental event that occurs immediately after the behaviour. It has an effect on the occurrence of the behaviour

Positive meaning

Stimulis is applied

Negative meaning

Stimulus is removed

Reinforcement meaning

Increases likelihood of behaviour recoccuring

Punishment meaning

Decreases likelihood of behaviour recoccuring

Issues with Punishment

Can actually be an outlet for the punisher to make them feel better

What has to be present for Effective Punishment

Brief and immediate -> helps ensure an association between behaviour and consequence

Order of presentation -> come after the response -> learner needs to be aware of consequences and linked to the behaviour in the mind of the organism being punished

Only effective if a positive behaviour can be developed to replace the negative behaviour

Appropriate level of the offence (not too slight or harsh)

Factors that Influence Operant Conditioning

Order of Presentation - learning is most effective when the reinforcement is presented after the desired response

Timing - learning is most effective when consequence is given immediately after the behaviour

Appropriateness - the reinforcer needs to be seen by the learner as a desirable reward or the punishment needs to be seen as a deterrent

Processes for Operant Conditioning

Stimulus Generalisation
Stimulus Discrimination
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery

Stimulus Generalisation in OC

occurs when the correct response is made to another stimulus that is similar to the stimulus presented when the conditioned response was reinforced

Stimulus Discrimination in OC

The ability of an organism to distinguish between different stimuli and respond only to the specific stimulus that has been associated with reinforcement or punishment — and not to similar stimuli that have not been reinforced

Extinction in OC

the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a conditioned response following consistent non-reinforcement of the response

Spontaneous Recovery in OC

after the extinction of a conditioned response

What happend in The Skinner Box experiment

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
• A rat was placed in the Skinner Box and started
displaying random behaviours (trial and error learning)

• The rat was rewarded with a food pellet whenever it pressed the lever

• The rat eventually learned to associate the lever-pressing behaviour with the food reward

Whenever the rat voluntarily pressed the lever

Operant vs Classical Conditioning Similarities

• Both are behaviourist approaches to learning

• Both are 3 phase processes of learning

• Both require several trials in order for learning to occur

• Achieved via repeated association of two events that follow each other closely in time

Operant vs Classical Conditioning Differences

• OC involves learning a voluntary behaviour whereas CC involves learning an involuntary behaviour
• Learners are active during OC but passive during CC
• OC is about consequences of a response whereas CC does not involve any consequences

Observational Learning

process of learning that involves watching the behaviour of a model and the associated consequence of that behaviour

Model definition

who or what is being observed

What is Observational learning also known as

• Also known as modelling -> person who the learner is observing is 'modelling' or demonstrating the behaviour

Vicarious Punishment

occurs when the likelihood of an observer performing a particular behaviour decreases after having seen a model's behaviour being punished

Vicarious Reinforcement

increases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way to a model whose behaviour is reinforced

Observational Learning Processes

Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation
Reinforcement

Attention

in order for learning to take place

What is attention influenced by

Perceptual capabilities of the observer
 Importance of the behaviour
 Characteristics of the model
 Distracters that are present
 Situation in which the behaviour is being observed

In the attention phase

learners are more likely to imitate models

Retention

learner creates a mental representation stored in memory of the behaviour the model has demonstrated that can be utilised at a later time

What happens if learners have met the Retention stage

info they hv paid attention to is stored in their memory

What happens due to the Retention stage

Info can then be accessed later on when the individual goes to perform this behaviour

What will more meaningful and modelled behaviour result in (Retention Stage)

More meaningful and modelled behaviour -> more likely learner will remember

Reproduction

we must have the physical and mental ability/be competent to be able to carry out

Limitation of the Reproduction Stage

Learner may not have the skills to produce learned behaviour

Motivation

observer must have a desire to perform the behaviour

What can Motivation be categorised as

Can be intrinsic (motivation from within) or extrinsic (motivation external)

Reinforcement

learner receives a desirable consequence for their behaviour -> more likely to reproduce the behaviour again in the future

External Reinforcement

relates to learning by consequences provided by the external world

Self - Reinforcement

reinforced by meeting certain internal standards of performance

3 forms of reinforcement

Self
External
Vicarious

What happend in Bandura's experiment

• Pre-school children were placed in different conditions where they watched an adult model hitting

Findings of Bandura's experiment

• Children who observed the aggressive model being rewarded imitated more aggressive behaviour

• Children who watched the model being punished imitated less aggressive behaviour

Experimental Findings of Bandura's experiment

• Highlights the distinction between learning and performance

• If someone observes a model's behaviour and does not perform the actions they have observed

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Learning

1.Situates the learner within a broader system
2.Takes the context of learning into consideration
3.Learning is deeply embedded in relationships

Kinship

o Kinship system defines the relationships that people have with each other

Country

o Refers to the living system of all entities that exist in the universe

o can be 'more than human entities such as animals

Multimodal

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander approaches to learning are multimodal by nature

Sung Narratives

• locations that are linked by a physically walked or imagined path through Country

• Tells stories of the journeys and experiences of the ancestral beings who created country

• Encode knowledge of places that are significant to finding water

What is Sung Narratives expressed through

Expressed through paintings dance and carved objects

Yarning

• An Aboriginal cultural practice used for sharing knowledge between people.
• takes the form of a conversation in which people seek to deepen their understanding of an idea

What is Yarning based on

• based on open questioning

What is Yarning governed by

seems informal -> governed by ethical principles of listening deeply and respectfully and not seeking to dominate the conversation

What happens during Yarning

• When yarning

Dadirri (Deep Listening)

Learning from country involves learning how to attend to and sense different languages of country

Process of attending to country is called Dadirri

Ways of Knowing

1. Dadirri
2. Yarning
3. Sung Narratives

System of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Knowledge

knowledge has been stored through methods other than written language

Situated Learning theory

learning should take place in the same context where it would be applied

Situated cognition

model of learning that is more communal and collaborative where the learner is in a system with particular knowledge

• Learning is less structured and rigid
• Learning occurs via observation and imitation of actions of other members
• Emphasises context-specific skills rather than rote learning

What are models of learning based on in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders communities

methods of learning are based on traditions and culture of the First Nations Australians

• Context of learning is important - the information is being learnt in the environment where it will be applied

• Much of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander learning is embedded in systems

How is learning embedded in relationships in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander

Relationships between concepts.
Relationships between learner and teacher.
Relationships between individuals

What is the 8 way framework

A framework where it describes the variety of methods used in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander approaches to learning

What is included in the 8 way framework

Story Sharing
Learning Maps
Non-Verbal
Symbols and Images
Land Links
Non-Linear
Deconstruct/Reconstruct
Community Links

What is Story Sharing

Learning takes place through narrative and story-sharing

What is Learning Maps

Planning and visualising processes and knowledge

What is Non-Verbal

Sharing Knowledge through non-verbal means

What is Symbols and images

Learning through symbols

What is Land Links

Learning and Knowledge are inherently linked to nature land and Country

What is Non-Linear

Thinking outside the square and taking knowledge from different viewpoints in order to build new understandings

what is deconstruct/reconstruct?

Breaking down a concept from whole to parts

What is community links?

Connecting learning to local values

What is Positive Punishment?

A consequence where an unpleasant stimulus is ADDED following a behaviour

What is Negative Punishment?

A consequence where a pleasant stimulus is REMOVED following a behaviour

What is Positive Reinforcement?

A consequence where a pleasant stimulus is ADDED following a behaviour

What is Negative Reinforcement?

A consequence where an unpleasant stimulus is REMOVED following a behaviour

Why are Classical and Operant Conditioning considered Behaviourist approaches?

Both focus on observable behaviour and how it is shaped by stimuli in the environment. They do not consider internal mental processes — learning is explained purely through stimulus-response associations that can be directly observed and measured.

Why is Observational Learning considered a Social-Cognitive approach?

It proposes that learning takes place in a social setting (by observing others/models) and involves internal cognitive processes such as attention

What does "Patterned on Country" mean?

Knowledge is shaped by and connected to the specific traditional lands of a cultural group. Country is not just a physical location — it carries spiritual and ancestral meaning

What is Holistic Learning (Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander)?

Learning is holistic meaning it connects time