Exam 3 Study Guide

ch. 34, 35, 38, & 39

What are the main components of circulatory systems?

1. Left Ventricle

2. Aortic valve

3. Aorta

4. out to the body (by capillaries): distribute nutrients & oxygen

5. Vena Cava (superior and inferior): now oxygen poor blood

6. Right Atrium

7. Right Ventricle

8. Pulmonary artery

9. Capillaries of lungs: now oxygen rich blood

10. Pulmonary vein

11. Left Atrium

How does the mammalian heart function in double circulation?

• double pump

• facilitating two separate circuits—pulmonary and systemic

• ensuring complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood

• right side pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs, while the left side pumps oxygenated blood to the body, allowing for high-pressure, efficient circulation.

What factors affect blood pressure and flow in blood vessels?

• cardiac output

• blood volume

• vessel diameter (vasoconstriction (narrows arteriole)/dilation (relaxation))

How do structure and function correlate in the capillaries?

thin walls facilitate exchange between blood in the capillaries and interstitial fluid

What are the main components and functions of blood?

Plasma

• liquid

Cellular Components

• white blood cells (leukocytes)

• red blood cells (contain hemoglobin)

• platelets (aid in blood clotting)

How do different respiratory surfaces facilitate gas exchange?

Respiratory surfaces: gills, lungs, skin

Exchange occurs through capillaries:

• Gill capillaries (fish)

• lung and skin capillaries (amphibians)

• lung capillaries

Path of air

1. Nasal Cavity

2. Pharynx

3. Larynx

4. Trachea

5. Bronchus

6. Bronchiole

• contain capillaries

• capillaries contain alveoli (where gas exchange occurs)

Path of food

1. Mouth

2. Pharynx

3. Esophagus (moves food through peristalsis)

4. Stomach (mixes food with acid + enzymes)

5. Small intestine (nutrient absorption)

6. Large intestine (absorbs water, forms waste)

7. Anus

Structure & functional difference between veins and arteries

Veins: thin-walled, have low pressure, which is why it needs valves, carries oxygen-poor blood towards the heart

Arteries: thick-walled, carries oxygen-rich blood away from the heart, high pressure, so no need for valves

What are the key components of innate immunity

1st line of defense: Barrier Defenses

• Skin

• Mucous Membranes

• Secretions

2nd line of defense: Internal Defenses

• Inflammatory Response

• Phagocytic cells (white blood cells/type of leukocyte)

• Natural Killer Cells

• Antimicrobial Proteins

How does adaptive immunity differ from innate immunity.

• found in vertebrates only

• slower response

• uses B and T lymphocytes

What roles do B cells and T cells play in the immune response.

B cells create antibodies and T cells attack infected cells

Describe the parts of a B cell and how it interacts with pathogens

Parts + Binding:

• B cells have Y-shaped antibodies (proteins produced by plasma cells) that have an antigen receptor on the end

• The antigen receptor on a B cell binds to the epitope of a pathogen’s antigen

Activation:

• B cells can activate independently (clonal selection) OR dependently:

• T-Cell dependent activation:

  • B cell engulfs the pathogen and has antigen fragments in it, then an MHC 2 complex is formed that holds the antigen

  • A CD4 T helper cell’s antigen receptor binds, and the antigen-presenting cell produces cytokines as an “alarm“ and activates the B cell to proliferate and become memory B cells and plasma cells

What is the role of Cytotoxic T cells (CD8 Cells) and how do they carry out their role in the immune system?

Cytotoxic T cells destroy infected or cancerous cells

• An already infected cell will have an MHC I complex with an antigen attached

• The CD8 Cell has an antigen receptor that will bind to the antigen on the surface of the infected cell

• The CD8 cell will release granzymes and perforins that trigger apoptosis in the infected cell

What does MHC stand for?

Major Histocompatibility Complex

What are the basic functions of the nervous systems?

Central Nervous System

• Brain & Spinal Cord

Peripheral Nervous System

• Somatic Nervous System: voluntary movement

• Autonomic Nervous System: involuntary movement

  • Parasympathetic: “rest & digest“

  • Sympathetic: “fight or flight“

How are the main regions of the vertebrate brain and their functions?

• diffuse nets in simple animals to highly centralized brains and nerve cords in complex ones

  • Key types:

    • nerve nets (cnidarians),

    • radial systems (echinoderms),

    • centralized nervous systems (bilaterians) featuring cephalization (head concentration).

List the 4 lobes of the brain and their functions

1. Frontal Lobe: Higher-order thinking, decision-making, and voluntary motor control

2. Temporal Lobe: processing auditory information, language comprehension, and memory formation

3. Occipital Lobe: Processing and interpretation of visual information

4. Parietal Lobe: processing sensory information, including touch, temperature, pain, and pressure

Specific parts of the brain & their function:

• Temporal Lobe:

  • Hippocampus: Formation of new long-term memories (temporal lobe

  • Amygdala: Emotional processing, especially fear and aggression

• Diencephalon:

  • Thalamus: Relay station for sensory information heading to the cortex

  • Hypothalamus: Homeostasis Region (temperature, hunger, endocrine control)

• Cerebellum: Coordination of voluntary movement, balance, and posture

• Brainstem:

  • Medulla oblongata: Regulation of basic autonomic functions such as heart rate and breathing

• Spinal Cord: connects the brain to the body; functions: reflexes, signal transmission

Types of Receptors:

• Mechanoreceptors: sound, touch, motion

• Chemoreceptors: tastes, smells, solutes

• Electromagnetic receptors: light, electricity

• Thermoreceptors: heat, cold

• Pain receptors: noxious chemicals, temperatures

What is the process of stimuli → reflex

1. Sensory stimuli taken in by receptors in the PNS

2. afferent neurons sent through the PNS to the CNS

3. efferent neurons sent to PNS to either Somatic or Autonomic NS produce a motor output

Special Senses & their receptors

• smell: nose; olfactory receptors

• taste: taste buds

• hearing + balance: ear (cochlea) and vestibular system

• vision: eyes; rods + cones

How does the cerebral cortex control voluntary movement and cognitive functions?

• voluntary movement: via the motor cortex (frontal lobe) through the pyramidal pathway, sending signals to the spinal cord

• cognitive functions (thought, decision-making) primarily via the prefrontal cortex

What is the current understanding of the biological basis of learning and memory?

• learning through neural plasticity: where experiences alter the brain's physical structure and function

• memories: new short-term memories are formed in the prefrontal cortex, while long-term storage is in the hippocampus

How does the skeletal system transform muscle contraction into locomotion?

Muscle fibers contract by the sliding-filament mechanism:

• actin (thin) and myosin (thick) filaments slide past each other, shortening the sarcomere and the overall muscle fiber

explain the steps of the sliding-filament model:

1. Motor neuron arrives at the neuromuscular junction

2. Acetylcholine is released from motor neuron and binds to receptors, causing a rush in of sodium ions

3. sodium runs along membrane and T tubule, depolarizing it

4. Depolarization causes Sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium

5. release of calcium binds to the troponin on a actin filament, exposing tropomyosin

Innate Behavior

Genetically programmed

• fixed action patterns

Learned Behavior

acquired through experience

• imprinting

• conditioning

Foraging Behavior & Optimal Foraging Theory

Cost benefit analysis of food acquisition

Mating Behavior & Sexual Selection

Intrasexual vs. intersexual mate selection