A Level Edexcel Politics Revision - Paper 2 - Feminism

what are the different types of feminism?

Liberal, Social, Radical and Post-modern

what do Liberal feminist advocate for?

1) they advocate for gender equality through political and legal reform within the existing systems. 2) they emphasise individual rights, legal equality and eliminating sex-based discrimination.

what is Social feminism? (the basic definition)

believes that gender inequality stems from economics and that capitalism creates patriarchy

what is radical feminism? (the basic definition)

believes that the biggest problem facing society is gender inequality

what is post-modern feminism? (the basic definition)

argues that patriarchy manifests in different ways depending on a woman's race, class etc.

when did Feminism begin?

in the Enlightenment period in the 18th century, when some liberals began advocating for women's rights, arguing that the oppression and inequality of women in society was an affront to liberty and equality. This included Mary Wollstonecraft's 'A Vindication of The Rights of Women' (1792).

when did first wave feminism emerge?

in the late 19th and early 20th century

what did first wave feminism focus on ?

formal inequalities in the public sphere and advocating for legal and political rights for women. this included the fight for women's suffrage which was important for women's participation in public and political life.

when was women's suffrage achieved in the UK and US?

1) 1920 in the US with the 19th amendment 2) 1928 in the UK with the Representation of the People Act.

what other legal inequalities did first wave feminism address?

property rights and access to education.

what strand of feminism is the first wave associated with?

Liberal feminism

when was the second wave feminism period?

the 1960s to the 1980s

what did second wave feminism focus on?

it widened the debate from just the public sphere to the wider range of issues oppressing women in society including sexuality, family, the workplace and reproductive rights.

what is "the personal is political"?

the second wave's slogan which emphasised that oppression and power dynamics in the family and private sphere were deeply political. they looked at the idea that all relationships, both in society and in private relationships, between men and women are based on power and dominance. they challenged the traditional nuclear family and the roles women were expected to play within it.

what strand is second-wave feminism associated with?

Radical feminism.

when was the fourth wave feminist period ?

began in the 2010s and continues today

what does fourth wave feminism focus on?

combating sexual harassment body shaming, and other gorms of gender inequality in both public spaces and online.

under what basis, did liberal feminists make their case?

they argue that all individuals should be equally free and have the same opportunities and rights in society and if women aren't granted these rights as men were, then society isn't truly equal. They supported political and legal reforms to achieve true gender equality and access to freedom and rights.

how do liberal feminists differ to Radicals in their approach ?

they are reformist, focusing on achieving gender equality through gradual change rather than a radical revolution of society.

why are liberal feminists reformist?

they focus on securing legal and political equality for women in the public sphere, by advocating for equal rights and opportunities that men already have, so that women can participate equally in the economy, politics and educational environments.

How do Liberal feminists differ to Radicals in their view of the private vs public sphere?

1) Radical feminists look at the oppression of women in the private sphere and want to challenge the power imbalance by overhauling the patriarchal society. 2) Liberals focus on the public sphere e.g. equality through rights and law changes.

what area of the private sphere did the Liberals concern themselves with?

violence against women and oppressive divorce laws.

what is the end goal of liberal feminists?

removing discrimination and inequality under the law, so that women can participate equally in the public sphere.

why were Liberal feminists concerned with education?

they saw equal educational opportunities for women as essential for enabling women to participate fully in economic and political life.

what were the main reforms that liberal feminists focused on?

Suffrage, Education, Equal Pay, Abortion and Reproductive Rights, Political representation,

when did the push for economic equality start to pay off for liberal feminists?

in the mid-20th century, with the Equal Pay Act (1963) in the US which aimed to abolish wage disparity based on sex.

why were liberal feminists concerned about reproductive rights?

they view control over one's body as a fundamental right

what do liberal feminists believe about political representation?

1) they advocated for increased representation of women, including gender quotas and campaigns used to encourage and support female candidates. 2) their goal is achieving more balanced representation so they can influence public policy in favour of gender equality.

what did Liberal feminists believe limited women's opportunities and freedoms in society, and what has it resulted in?

gender stereotypes and societal attitudes (particularly in the media and society because they portray women as less capable than men and more suited to domestic roles) as they reinforce gender inequality and discrimination. This has resulted in women not being able to access the same jobs and opportunities in the economy as men.

what did Social feminists see as the cause of the oppression of women?

Capitalism and as a result they believed that overthrowing capitalism in favour of socialism would result in the abolition of patriarchy and gender inequality.

why did Socialist feminists blame capitalism for the issues women face?

because in capitalist societies, women are responsible for the unpaid labour of domestic roles. This role was crucial for the reproduction of the labour force and upholding capitalism.

why does unpaid domestic work lead to women's dependence on men in a capitalist economy, according to Socialist Feminists?

as domestic work isn't recognised as productive labour under capitalism and isn't paid, women are made dependent on men, which confined them to the domestic private sphere and limited their opportunities.

According to Socialist feminists, what are a direct result of private property and why?

traditional gender roles, monogamous marriage and the nuclear family structure - because they were required to inherit private property through male heirs, which reinforced patriarchy.

what is the "reserve army of labour"?

The idea that women constitute a spare workforce that can be called upon as and when needed for low-paid, insecure jobs and is directly linked to the oppression of women through capitalism. it keeps overall wages low and ensured capitalism never ran out of workers.

why did social feminists believe that abolishing capitalism would liberate women?

because it would collectivise domestic labour rather than it all being placed on women, and domestic and public industry working would be equally valued and compensated. The eradication of private property and the need to reproduce the labour force would change gender relations within the private sphere and the abolition of traditional gender roles.

what did Shelia Rowbotham argue about capitalism?

that women faced dual oppression under capitalism due to having to perform both poorly paid, insecure jobs in the workforce and unpaid domestic labour.

what did Charlotte Perkin Gilman argue about capitalism ?

that capitalism forced women into a position where their survival and social status depended heavily on marriage, which was a socio-economic contract where women traded their domestic labour, sexual availability and reproductive capabilities for survival and financial support from their husbands.

what do Social feminists believe about Patriarchy?

They believed patriarchy couldn't be reduced to just capitalism and so the oppression of women couldn't be entirely eradicated through the abolition of capitalism. They said that the oppression of women was also due to societal attitudes. Therefore, gender relations in the private sphere needed to be tackled as well as removing capitalism.

what did Shelia Rowbotham argue about patriarchy?

1) she argued that men took refuge in the private sphere under capitalism, because they had power and women had to fulfill their needs (reinforcing the subordination of women). 2) She called for a "revolution within a revolution" so that the economic system could be restructured to eliminate class inequality and to transform social relations and institutions to eradicate gender oppression.

what did Charlotte Perkins Gilman argue about patriarchy?

She argued that society subtly coerced girls into becoming mothers and homemakers from a young age, through toys and clothing. This limits their economic independence from a young age.

What do Radical Feminist believe ?

they believe that society is fundamentally patriarchal and that gender oppression affects all aspects of life.

How do Liberal and Radical Feminists differ?

Radicals believed that the reforms that Liberals suggested was not enough. They instead advocated for a transformation of society (including the private sphere) to eliminate patriarchal oppression and achieve true gender equality and women's liberation.

What do Radical feminists argue about "the personal is political"?

they argue that the patriarchal family is a central "site" of women's oppression, as a microcosm of broader societal inequalities and where male dominance and female subordination were perpetuated.

According to Radicals, what is a woman's central role in the capitalist patriarchal society?

the unpaid, undervalued domestic labour that women perform in the home such as housekeeping, child-rearing and caregiving.

What did Kate Millet say about the family? (KEY THINKER)

"the family is patriarchy's chief institution" => she said the traditional family was a political system that normalises and perpetuates male dominance and female subservience in the domestic and public sphere, by assigning authority and leadership roles on men and relegating women to submissive and dependent positions. She argued the removal of the traditional family structure was essential to achieving a true sexual revolution.

What did Radicals say about domestic violence, rape and sexual harassment?

rather than dismissing them as private matters that were 'normal', they said that domestic violence, rape and sexual harassment are manifestations of patriarchal power and control and needed to be addressed as societal issues requiring systemic change.

What did Radicals say about women's reproductive rights?

women should have control of their own bodies, which is central to liberation. without control over their reproductive lives through contraception and the right to an abortion, women could not achieve true autonomy and equality.

What are consciousness-raising groups and how do radicals use them?

they are used to explore and articulate the connections between personal experiences between larger social and political structures. they provide a space for women to recognise common patterns of oppression, understand how their experiences occurred within the context of systemic patriarchy and organise to fight this oppression.

How do Radical feminists define patriarchy?

1) a pervasive social structure in which men hold authority and control over women in both public and private spheres. 2) it is systemic and is the primary system of power that defines all of society, the sate and the economy.

How do Radical Feminists differ on their view of the patriarchy to Liberal feminists and socialists feminists?

1) Radicals view gender oppression as a system of oppression that defines all of society, unlike Liberals who focus on legal reforms and socialists who connect women's oppression to class exploitation. 2) They all agree that patriarchy is the issue but disagree on where it stems from and how to tackle it. 3) Radicals argue that patriarchy is the root cause of women's subjugation and that dismantling it requires a transformation of societal norms, institutions and personal relationships.

What do Radicals believe about the traditional family?

that it is a cornerstone of patriarchal society, maintaining and perpetuating gender inequalities.

What do Radical feminists argue about the portrayal of women in media/society etc?

1) they argue that the media (etc) upholds traditional gender roles that facilitate male dominance and exploitation of women. 2) by challenging these traditional roles, radical feminists aim to expose and dismantle the mechanisms through which patriarchy perpetuates women's oppression.

what did Naomi Wolf say in her book "The Beauty Myth" about the portrayal of women ? (NOT KEY THINKER)

Naomi Wolf said that societal standards of beauty are used to control and oppress women. The media, literature and cultural narratives often depict women as passive, submissive and valued for their physical appearance.

what did Kate Millett say in her book "Sexual Politics" about the portrayal of women ?

that art and literature are vehicles for 'sexual politics' and for the continuation of patriarchal societal values and a social order that glorified male dominance, and the control and abuse of women.

What do Radicals say about the socialisation of women in the patriarchal society?

that from a young age, it reduces women to a passive position in society, stripping them of sexual autonomy and facilitating male dominance and violence. Cultural norms and media portrayals often depict ideal feminity as compliant and self-sacrificing, reinforcing the expectation that women should prioritise other's needs over their own.

How are women's bodies objectified and portrayed by the media according to radicals?

the media portrays them as objects for male pleasure rather than active agents with their own desires. this objectification contributes to a societal view of women as passive recipients rather than active participants.

in relation to sex, what do radicals believe about women?

that their sexual autonomy has been removed as they were socialised to believe that sexual desires were against their traditional gender role. if they were openly sexual, women were condemned by society. they strongly oppose pornography and prostitution, viewing them as tools of male control and sexual exploitation that commodify women's bodies and perpetuate harmful stereotypes.

what do Radicals believe is the solution to gender issues?

1) true gender equality requires a fundamental restructuring of society. 2) Patriarchal systems are too deeply embedded in social, political and economic institutions, and incremental reforms are insufficient to dismantle them. 3) they call for revolutionary changes that transform the structures of power.

What do Radicals think needs to happen within a revolution?

creating new forms of family and community that reject traditional gender roles, developing economic systems that value women's labour equally, and establish legal and political frameworks that protect women's rights and promote their full participation in all aspects of life.

who and what did feminists say about creating women's only spaces?

difference feminists (a strand of radical) advocated for creating women's only spaces, founded by and run by women only, to provide safety and protection to women. they saw them as important for empowering women and as a form of political resistance against patriarchy.

what did Andrea Dworkin advocate for?

strong legal measures against pornography and prostitution, viewing them as industries that perpetuated patriarchal control over women's bodies, sexual exploitation and violence against women.

what did Kate Millett say the solution was?

1) the traditional family structure needed to be dismantled. 2) redefining what families could look like, including accepting non-heteronormative relationships and family structures. 3) redistributing roles in child-rearing and household duties to be more equitable. "the complete destruction of traditional marriage and the nuclear family is the 'revolutionary or utopian' goal of feminism."

what did Kate Millett think about marriage?

she supported an end to monogamous marriage and the traditional family which she saw as patriarchy's chief institution - "The complete destruction of traditional marriage and the nuclear family is the 'revolutionary or utopian' goal of feminism".

What is post-modern feminism?

1) critiques the second wave's white, middle-class perspective 2) they argue there is no single experience of womanhood and gendered oppression and instead emphasise intersectionality.

what is the Post-Modern understanding of Gender?

they promote a more fluid and less fixed understanding of gender and what it means to be a woman, emphasising the diversity of identities that exist within womanhood. gender is not a rigid, binary category but rather a spectrum of identities that intersect with other aspects of a person's social and personal life, such as race, class, sexuality and culture.

what did bell hooks argue? (KEY THINKER)

that women's experiences shouldn't be universalised but that instead, there should be a focus on solidarity between women and other groups facing oppression in different ways. alliances must be built between groups who have differences in order to work together and build a more inclusive movement, so that systems of oppression can be effectively challenged and dismantled.

what is intersectionality?

it is the response to the second-wave's generalisation of women's experiences and the overlooking of the unique experiences of women of colour, working-class women and LGBTQ+ individuals etc. instead they highlight how the oppression of women intersects with other social categorisations and forms of oppression including race, class, gender and sexuality.

what does intersectionality involve?

inclusion of voices and perspectives from all groups who are marginalised in different ways, so that the feminist movement addresses the needs and oppression of all women.

what did bell hooks argue about intersectionality?

that feminists should understand how race, capitalist exploitation and class oppression are inherently linked to gender inequality and support solutions that truly address poverty and racism which disproportionately impact women of colour.

what is the difference between sex and gender ?

sex refers to biological differences between men and women, whereas gender refers to the different roles that society ascribes to men and women.

What is patriarchy?

society, state and the economy are characterised by systematic, institutionalised and pervasive gender oppression.

what is the difference between equality feminists and difference feminists?

equality feminists seek equality for men and women in society whereas difference feminists argue that men and women have fundamentally different nature from one another.

Are the strands of feminism united on gender inequality?

Yes - feminists of all strands are united in their commitment to dismantling the systemic barriers that perpetuate discrimination, oppression and unequal opportunity based on gender. they want to create a society where individuals have equal rights, opportunities and freedoms, regardless of gender.

what approach do Liberals have on how to achieve equality?

Reformist - gradual change rather than a radical restructuring of society. this has includes promoting the right to vote, equal access to education and pay, and equal political representation.

why are liberals reformists?

because they focus on securing legal and political equality for women in the public sphere, by advocating for equal rights and opportunities that men already have, so that women can participate equally in the economy, politics and educational environments.

what are the liberals end goals?

removing discrimination and inequality under the law, so that women can participate equally in the public sphere.

what approach do socialists feminists have on how to achieve equality?

revolution - they focus on how capitalism and gender equality were closely linked and believed that a socialist revolution was necessary for gender oppression to be removed.

what end goals did socialists have?

a society free of gendered oppression built on socialists versions of communal living and collectivism. Both Rowbotham and Gilman advocated for the domestic labour to be communal.

what did later socialists argue in relation to removing gender-based oppression?

that removing capitalism alone wasn't sufficient to achieve full gender equality. they argued that societal attitudes and gender relations in the private sphere needed to be tackled as well.

what did Shelia Rowbotham say in relation to socialism's approach on how to achieve equality?

she called for a "revolution within a revolution" that required a restructuring of the economic system to eliminate class inequality and a radical transformation of social relations and institutions to eradicate gender oppression.

what did Charlotte Perkins Gilman focus on in relation to socialism's approach on how to achieve equality?

she focused on how societal conditioning subtly coerced girls into becoming mothers and homemakers from a young age, through toys and clothing, limiting their economic independence from a young age. She argued for gender neutral toys, clothing etc for kids.

what approach do Radicals have on how to achieve equality?

revolution - they believe that achieving true gender equality requires a fundamental restructuring of society. they argue that patriarchal systems are deeply embedded in social, political and economic institutions, and incremental reforms are insufficient to dismantle them. instead, we need revolutionary changes that transform the underlying structures of power.

what controversial idea did radicals advocate for in connection to equality?

many advocated for creating women's only spaces to provide safety and protection to women. They also saw these spaces as important for the empowerment of women and as a form of political resistance against patriarchy.

what did Andrea Dworkin say about pornography and prostitution?

she argued for strong legal measures against pornography and prostitution, viewing them as industries that perpetuate patriarchal control over women's bodies, sexual exploitation and violence against women.

what did Kate Millett say in relation to the Radical's approach on how to achieve equality?

Millett argued that the traditional family structure needed to be dismantled. This would involve redefining what families could look like, including accepting non-heteronormative relationships and family structures, and redistributing roles in child-rearing and household duties to be more equitable. She also supported an end to monogamous marriage and the traditional family; which she saw as patriarchy's chief institution, writing: "the complete destruction of traditional marriage and the nuclear family is the 'revolutionary or utopian' goal of feminism."

what approach do Post-Modern have on how to achieve equality?

inclusion - they believe that to truly tackle gender inequality and oppression for all women, the voices and perspectives of all groups who are marginalised in different ways needed to be included.

what did bell hooks argue in relation to equality and how to achieve it?

hooks said that feminists should understand how race, capitalist exploitation and class oppression are inherently linked to gender inequality and support solutions that truly address poverty and racism, which disproportionately impact women of colour. alliances must be built between groups to work together and to build a more inclusive movement, so that systems of oppression can be effectively challenged and dismantled.

what did bell hooks say about 'solidarity'?

that it must be based on empathy, understanding and love. "Solidarity is not the same as support. To experience solidarity, we must have a community of interests, shared beliefs and goals around which to unite, to build a sisterhood. support can be be occasional. it can be given and just as easily withdrawn. Solidarity requires sustained, ongoing commitment."

When do all strands of feminism believe gender "starts"?

from birth, children are socialised into what is considered appropriate behaviour for their gender, including through their clothes and toys. These experiences are further reinforced by parents, teachers, media and peers, creating a feedback loop that solidifies traditional gender roles. As a result, individuals grow up internalising these gender norms, believing them to be natural and intrinsic rather than socially constructed.

what do Feminists believe about gender norms?

that they constrain the opportunities of women in society. They justify male dominance and female subordination, women's confinement to the domestic sphere and their lack of ability to access the same jobs as men.

What influence did Simone de Beauvoir have on the feminist understanding of sex and gender? (KEY THINKER)

she was central. her book "The Second Sex" asserted that "one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman".

what did Simone de Beauvoir argue about sex and gender? (KEY THINKER)

she argued that biological differences between men and women are undeniable but that the roles and behaviours of men and women in society were socially constructed. Society turns girls into women as they internalise the roles, values and norms that society prescribes. This turns them into slaves who are restricted to focusing only on motherhood and feminity rather than politics, technology or anything beyond the domestic sphere.

what did Simone de Beauvoir say about difference feminism? (KEY THINKER)

she rejected it and the idea that there was an innate 'feminine nature'. this supposed 'nature' wasn't innate to women, instead was imposed on them through societal conditioning. She therefore didn't believe that women should reject male characteristics and roles.

what do liberals say about the difference between sex and gender?

they reject the idea that gender inequality was biologically determined and instead argued that women can prosper in the workplace and in society if they are given the same opportunities as men.

what did Mary Wollstonecraft say about the difference between sex and gender?

she challenged the prevailing societal beliefs of her time which depicted women as inherently inferior than men in intellect and agency, and argued that women are inherently rational beings, fully capable of reason and deserving of the same educational opportunities as men. she believed that any perceived inferiority of women was not the result of natural differences but of inadequate and unequal education, which stifled their intellectual development and confined them to subordinate roles in society.

what did Wollstonecraft advocate for as the solution to gender inequality?

a change in the way society views and educates women, emphasising that with proper education, women could make decisions independently and contribute equally to society.

what did Betty Friedan say about the difference between sex and gender?

she explained that women were restrained by a lack of formal equality and by pervasive societal attitudes that undermined their rationality and autonomy. she argued that the societal attitudes that say the primary role of women is that of the wife and mother, confined them to the domestic sphere, rather than being able to pursue their goals and careers - the "feminist mystique".

what did Friedan say about prejudice against gender?

that they were perpetuated through cultural norms and practices, effectively denying women the true freedom and potential for self-realisation that liberalism believed was innate to all humans. "We need to see men and women as equal partners, but it's hard to think of movies that treat women as full human beings".

what do Socialists say about the difference between sex and gender?

gender roles weren't biologically determined but that women are forced into performing domestic labour for their survival due to capitalism.

what did Charlotte Perkins Gilman say about sex and gender? (KEY THINKER)

that capitalism forced women into a position where their survival and social status depend on marriage, which was a socio-economic contract where women traded their domestic labour, sexual availability and reproductive capabilities for survival and financial support from their husbands.