PSYCH 1100 Exam 2 Terms List

Applied behavioral analysis

A therapy based on operant conditioning principles that uses reinforcement to increase desired behaviors and reduce harmful ones

Classical conditioning

Learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus to produce a similar response (Pavlov's dogs)

Operant conditioning

Learning where behavior is shaped by its consequences — reinforcement increases it, punishment decreases it

Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between stimuli and respond only to a specific one

Extinction

The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus

Generalization

Responding to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus as if they were the conditioned stimulus itself

Habituation

Decreased response to a stimulus after repeated exposure to it

Latent learning

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not demonstrated until there is a reason to do so

Learned helplessness

The tendency to give up and stop trying after repeatedly experiencing uncontrollable negative events

Observational learning

Learning by watching and imitating others (Bandura's social learning theory)

Schedules of reinforcement

The rules that determine when and how often a behavior will be reinforced (fixed/variable ratio or interval)

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period

Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior to gradually teach a new behavior

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to form new memories after a brain injury while old memories remain intact

Episodic memory

Long-term memory of specific personal experiences and events, including when and where they happened

Encoding

The process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory

Explicit memory

Conscious, intentional recollection of facts and experiences (includes semantic and episodic memory)

Implicit memory

Unconscious memory that influences behavior without deliberate recall (includes procedural memory and priming)

Flashbulb memory

A vivid, detailed memory of a highly emotional or significant event

Interference theory

The idea that forgetting occurs because other memories compete with or disrupt the retrieval of a target memory

Priming

Exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a later stimulus, often without conscious awareness

Procedural memory

Implicit memory for how to do things — motor skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike)

Schema

A mental framework or blueprint that organizes and interprets information based on prior knowledge

Semantic memory

Long-term memory for general facts and knowledge about the world, not tied to personal experience

Sensory memory

The very brief, initial recording of sensory information before it is processed or forgotten

Serial position effect

The tendency to better remember items at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a list

Working memory

A limited-capacity system that temporarily holds and manipulates information for use in current tasks

Assimilation

Incorporating new information into existing schemas without changing them

Accommodation

Modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to fit new information that doesn't fit current schemas

Authoritarian parenting

A strict parenting style with high demands and low responsiveness — obedience is expected, warmth is low

Authoritative parenting

A balanced parenting style with high warmth and high structure — rules are set but explained and discussed

Neglectful parenting

A parenting style with low responsiveness and low demands — parents are uninvolved in the child's life

Permissive parenting

A lenient parenting style with high warmth but few rules or expectations

Sensorimotor stage

Piaget's first stage (0–2 years) where infants learn through senses and motor actions

Preoperational stage

Piaget's second stage (2–7 years) marked by symbolic thinking and egocentrism, but not yet logical reasoning

Concrete operational stage

Piaget's third stage (7–11 years) where children develop logical thinking about concrete objects and gain conservation

Formal operational stage

Piaget's fourth stage (12+ years) where abstract and hypothetical thinking develops

Temperament

Innate, biologically based differences in emotional reactivity and self-regulation (e.g., easy, difficult, slow-to-warm)

Executive function

Higher-order cognitive skills including working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control

Secure attachment

A healthy attachment style where a child uses the caregiver as a safe base and is comforted by their return

Insecure attachment

An attachment style (anxious or avoidant) where the child doesn't fully trust the caregiver as a safe base

Object permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they can't be seen — develops in the sensorimotor stage

Attribution theory

The study of how people explain the causes of behavior — either to internal traits or external situations

Bystander effect

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help in an emergency when others are present

Cognitive dissonance

The discomfort felt when holding two conflicting beliefs or when behavior contradicts beliefs, motivating attitude change

Conformity

Changing one's behavior or beliefs to match the group's norms (e.g., Asch's line experiments)

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and personal responsibility in group settings, often leading to impulsive behavior

Elaboration likelihood model

A theory of persuasion with two routes: central (careful thinking) and peripheral (surface cues like attractiveness)

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency to overemphasize internal traits and underestimate situational factors when explaining others' behavior

Mere exposure effect

The tendency to develop a preference for things simply because they are familiar

Representativeness heuristic

Judging the likelihood of something based on how well it matches a prototype or stereotype

Self-fulfilling prophecy

A belief or expectation that causes itself to come true by influencing behavior

Social contagion

The spread of behaviors, emotions, or ideas through a group via imitation or influence

Social identity theory

The idea that people's self-concept is partly based on the groups they belong to, driving in-group favoritism

Stereotype threat

The fear of confirming a negative stereotype about one's group, which can impair performance

Gender identity

A person's internal, subjective sense of their own gender

Gender roles

Cultural expectations and norms about how people of a given gender should behave

Social role theory

The idea that gender differences in behavior arise from the different social roles men and women occupy

Sex chromosomes

The chromosomes (XX or XY) that determine biological sex

Sexual orientation

A person's enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others

Gender similarities hypothesis

The idea that males and females are more psychologically similar than different across most traits

Big five factors of personality

Five broad personality traits: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism (OCEAN)

Projective test

A personality test using ambiguous stimuli (e.g., Rorschach inkblots) to reveal unconscious thoughts and feelings

Self-efficacy

A person's belief in their own ability to succeed at a specific task (Bandura)

Unconditional positive regard

Accepting and valuing a person without conditions — a core concept in Rogers' humanistic therapy

Self-report test

A personality assessment where individuals answer questions about themselves (e.g., surveys, questionnaires)

Face validity

The degree to which a test appears on the surface to measure what it claims to measure

MMPI

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory — a widely used empirically keyed personality and psychopathology test

Empirically keyed test

A test developed by selecting questions that statistically differentiate groups rather than based on theory

Hawthorne effect

The tendency for people to change their behavior when they know they are being observed

Flow

A state of complete absorption and enjoyment in a challenging activity where skill meets demand

Continuance commitment

Staying in a job because of the costs of leaving, not because of emotional attachment

Halo effect

The tendency for a positive impression in one area to influence overall perception of a person

Performance appraisal

A formal evaluation of an employee's job performance, usually conducted by a manager

Strengths-based management

A leadership approach that focuses on identifying and leveraging employees' existing strengths

Transactional leader

A leader who motivates through rewards and punishments based on performance — focuses on routine exchange

DSM-5-TR

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders — the standard classification system for psychological disorders in the US

Medical model

The view that psychological disorders have biological causes and should be diagnosed and treated like physical illnesses

Comorbidity

The presence of two or more disorders in the same person at the same time

Hallucinations

False sensory perceptions that feel real but have no external stimulus (e.g., hearing voices)

Delusions

Fixed, false beliefs that are resistant to reason or evidence (e.g., believing one is being persecuted)

Major depressive disorder

A mood disorder marked by persistent sadness, loss of interest, and other symptoms lasting at least two weeks

Obsessive-compulsive disorder

An anxiety-related disorder marked by intrusive, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions)

Post-traumatic stress disorder

A disorder triggered by a traumatic event, involving flashbacks, avoidance, hyperarousal, and negative cognitions

Generalized anxiety disorder

Chronic, excessive worry about multiple areas of life that is difficult to control

Borderline personality disorder

A personality disorder marked by unstable emotions, relationships, self-image, and impulsive behavior

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

A neurodevelopmental disorder involving inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that impairs functioning

Autism spectrum disorder

A neurodevelopmental disorder marked by difficulties in social communication and restricted, repetitive behaviors

Vulnerability-stress hypothesis or diathesis-stress model

The idea that disorders develop when a biological predisposition (vulnerability) is triggered by environmental stressors

Cognitive-behavior therapy

A therapy that identifies and changes negative thought patterns and maladaptive behaviors

Cultural humility

An ongoing process of self-reflection and learning about others' cultural backgrounds to avoid bias in therapy

Evidence-based practice

Using the best available research combined with clinical expertise and client values to guide treatment

Systematic desensitization

A behavioral therapy for phobias that pairs relaxation with gradual exposure to a feared stimulus

Therapeutic alliance

The collaborative, trusting relationship between a therapist and client — a key predictor of therapy success

Electroconvulsive therapy

A biomedical treatment for severe depression involving brief electrical stimulation of the brain under anesthesia