Social Psychology and Personality

Sigmund Freud

Psychoanalytic perspective; behavior driven by unconscious conflicts, sexual and aggressive instincts, and early childhood experiences

Carl Jung

Proposed the collective unconscious and archetypes; emphasized unconscious influence

Alfred Adler

Focused on inferiority complex and social influences shaping personality

Karen Horney

Believed personality is shaped by social relationships and basic anxiety (insecurity and need for love/security)

Hermann Rorschach

Created inkblot test to reveal unconscious thoughts

Abraham Maslow

Developed hierarchy of needs; emphasized self-actualization

Carl Rogers

Focused on unconditional positive regard and self-concept

Gordon Allport

Identified cardinal, central, and secondary traits

Raymond Cattell

Used factor analysis to develop 16 personality factors (16PF)

Hans Eysenck

Focused on introversion/extraversion and emotional stability

Albert Bandura

Proposed reciprocal determinism and observational learning

Julian Rotter

Developed internal vs external locus of control

Martin Seligman

Studied learned helplessness and positive psychology

Conscious

Awareness of current thoughts and perceptions

Preconscious

Memories not currently in awareness but easily accessible

Unconscious

Reservoir of hidden desires, fears, and memories

Id

Operates on pleasure principle; seeks immediate gratification

Ego

Operates on reality principle; mediates between id and superego

Superego

Operates on morality principle; enforces ethical behavior

Oral Stage

Pleasure from mouth (0–18 months); fixation may lead to smoking or overeating

Anal Stage

Toilet training and control (18–36 months); fixation may lead to rigid or messy traits

Phallic Stage

Focus on genitals (3–6 years); includes Oedipus/Electra complex

Latency Stage

Dormant sexual feelings (6–puberty); focus on peers

Genital Stage

Mature sexual interests (puberty onward)

Fixation

Lingering focus on pleasure at an earlier stage due to unresolved conflict

Identification

Adopting traits of same-sex parent to resolve conflict and strengthen superego

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Projective test where people create stories about ambiguous images

Rorschach Inkblot Test

Projective test using inkblots to reveal unconscious thoughts

Projective Test Weaknesses

Low reliability and validity; subjective interpretation

Free Association

Saying whatever comes to mind to reveal unconscious thoughts

Dream Analysis

Interpreting dreams to uncover unconscious desires

Repression

Pushing anxiety-provoking thoughts into unconscious

Regression

Reverting to childlike behavior under stress

Reaction Formation

Acting opposite of true feelings

Projection

Attributing your own feelings to others

Rationalization

Justifying behavior with logical explanations

Displacement

Redirecting emotions to a safer target

Denial

Refusing to accept reality

Sublimation

Channeling impulses into socially acceptable behavior

Collective Unconscious

Shared unconscious with universal archetypes (Jung)

Inferiority Complex

Drive to overcome feelings of inferiority (Adler)

Basic Anxiety

Feelings of insecurity leading to neurotic behavior (Horney)

Psychoanalysis Criticisms

Not scientifically testable; too focused on sex/aggression; small biased samples

Unconditional Positive Regard

Acceptance without conditions (Rogers)

Conditions of Worth

Feeling valued only under certain conditions

Self-Concept

Perception of oneself

Self-Actualization

Fulfilling one’s potential

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological → Safety → Love/Belonging → Esteem → Self-Actualization

Humanistic Criticisms

Too subjective; difficult to measure; ignores darker aspects of human behavior

Trait

Stable characteristic influencing behavior

Cardinal Traits

Dominant traits defining a person

Central Traits

Core traits present in most situations

Secondary Traits

Situation-specific preferences

Factor Analysis

Statistical method to identify clusters of traits

16PF

Cattell’s 16 personality factors

Big Five (OCEAN)

Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism

MMPI

True/false personality inventory measuring normal and abnormal traits

Trait Theory Criticisms

Ignores situational influences; behavior not always consistent

Reciprocal Determinism

Interaction of behavior, environment, and cognition (Bandura)

Observational Learning

Learning by watching others

Internal Locus of Control

Belief that you control your fate

External Locus of Control

Belief that outside forces control your fate

Self-Efficacy

Belief in one’s ability to succeed

Learned Helplessness

Giving up due to perceived lack of control

Social-Cognitive Criticisms

Underestimates unconscious and biological influences

Self-Esteem

Overall sense of self-worth

Spotlight Effect

Overestimating how much others notice you

Self-Serving Bias

Attributing success to self and failure to external factors

Individualism

Prioritizing personal goals and identity

Collectivism

Prioritizing group goals and relationships