Social Psychology Key Terms: Attitudes, Biases, and Group Dynamics

social psychology

study of social influence on human behavior

intrapersonal

pertaining to an individual person

interpersonal

concerning interaction among groups

situationism

behavior is determined by the immediate circumstances of the environment

dispositionism

internal factors determine behavior

internal factor

a personal attribute, including personality traits and temperament

fundamental attribution error

tendency to attribute other's behavior to internal factors, minimizing or ignoring the impact of the situation

halo effect

tendency for overall impression to influence opinion of an individual in other areas

individualistic culture

a culture that tends to emphasize individual achievement and autonomy

collectivistic culture

a culture that focuses on communal relationships with others

actor-observer bias

tendency to attribute other people's behavior to internal factors while attributing one's own behavior to situational forces

attribution

belief about the cause of an outcome

locus of control

where someone attributes the control of the situation, i.e., themselves (internal) or the environment (external)

self-serving bias

tendency to explain successes with internal attributions but point to situation or external factors for failures

just-world hypothesis

belief that people get the outcomes they deserve

social role

pattern of behavior expected of a person in a given setting or group

social norm

a group's expectation of what is appropriate and acceptable behavior for its members

script

person's expectations about the sequence of events in a certain setting

attitude

individual evaluation of something, typically favorable or unfavorable

cognitive dissonance

psychological discomfort that arises from discrepancies between attitudes or beliefs and behaviors

justification of effort

we value goals and achievements that we put a lot of effort into

persuasion

process of changing our attitude toward something based on some kind of communication

Yale Attitude Change Approach

a model that describes the conditions under which people tend to change their attitudes

Elaboration Likelihood Model

Identifies two main routes for attitude change

central route

direct path to attitude change, or persuasion, that is logic driven and sets out data/facts to convince people

peripheral route

indirect way of changing attitude by associating it with positive messaging, i.e. celebrity endorsement, product placement in a popular show over facts/logic

foot-in-the-door

getting the person to agree to smaller request and building to a larger request

confederate

someone in a research study who behaves in a certain way as part of the research

conformity

the change in a person's behavior to go along with the group

Asch effect

the influence of the majority on an individual's judgement

normative social influence

when people conform to the group in order to fit in

informational social influence

when people conform to the group believing that others may be more competent or have correct/more information

obedience

the change of an individual's behavior to comply with a demand from an authority figure

groupthink

the change in opinions of members of a group to align with what they believe the group consensus is

group polarization

the tendency for a group's opinion to grow stronger (perhaps more extreme) following discussion of that viewpoint

social loafing

a reduction in individual output on tasks with pooled effort

deindividuation

situations where a person may feel an increased sense of anonymity and therefore reduction in accountability and sense of self among others

prejudice

negative attitude and feeling toward an individual based solely one's membership in a particular social group

stereotype

specific belief or assumption about individuals based solely on their membership in a group

discrimination

negative action toward an individual as a result of one's membership in a particular group

racism

prejudice and discrimination against an individual based solely on their membership in a specific racial group

sexism

prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based on their sex

ageism

prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based on their age

homophobia

prejudice and discrimination of individuals based solely on their sexual orientation

transphobia

hatred or fear of those who are perceived to break or blur stereotypical gender roles

self-fulfilling prophecy

expectations that change how an individual treats another person, often leading to the other person behaving in a way that aligns with the individual's initial expectations

confirmation bias

seeking information supports our beliefs and ignoring inconsistent or challenging information

in-group

group that an individual identifies as a part of

out-group

group that is fundamentally different than one's own

in-group bias

tendency to prefer one's own group which may lead to prejudice or discrimination against others who aren't members of that group

scapegoating

blaming an out-group when the in-group experiences unwanted outcome or frustration

aggression

wanting to cause harm or pain to another person (or group)

hostile aggression

motivated by feelings of anger with intent to cause pain

instrumental aggression

motivated by desire to achieve a goal, does not necessarily involve intent to cause pain (means to an end)

bullying

repeated negative treatment of another person over time that can be physical, verbal, or psychological

cyberbullying

repeated behavior that is intended to cause psychological or emotional harm to another person typically committed by an anonymous person

bystander effect

phenomenon in which a witness (or bystander) does not volunteer to help a victim or person in distress

diffusion of responsibility

in a group setting, responsibility is divided among the group, no one person feels individually responsible

prosocial behavior

voluntary behavior with the intent to help others

altruism

helping others despite a cost to one's self

empathy

capacity to understand another person's perspective

homophily

tendency for people to form relationships with others who are similar

reciprocity

the give and take of a relationship

self-disclosure

act of sharing personal information

attraction

a feeling of interest or connection that makes someone want to be near or interact with another person

matching hypothesis

when picking partners, people tend to pick someone they view as comparable to themselves in physical attractiveness and social desirability

triangular theory of love

a theory that proposes three components of love, intimacy, passion, and commitment

consummate love

love characterized by having all 3 elements, such as in an ideal committed relationship

companionate love

characterized by intimacy and commitment but not passion, as with close friendships and family relationships

romantic love

passion and intimacy but no commitment

social exchange theory

an explanation of why individuals maintain relationships that suggests they keep a record of costs and benefits