History of the Modern Middle East

Why is Napoleon Interested in Invading Ottomans?

Loss of India, percieved Egypt and Middle East as a steo closer, loss of debt after 7 Year War (1790s)

What strategies did Napolean attempt to use to gain popularity amongst Ottomoans

Islamic rhetoric, protecting hajj, preserving religous differences

Ottoman Government pre-France

Led by two competing Mamluk overlords with declining authority over local governors

Why did French Leave?

October 1798- High taxation and expropriation of property led to resistance. By 1801- Ottomans are backed by British

Occupation Impacts- French on Ottoman Empire

Power vaccuum left behind from Mamluks, Ottomans, and British all in area

Mehmed Ali’s Consolidation of Power

Early 1800s: new loyal elite from Greece, pushing Mamluks into Upper Egypt, making them pay taxes

Mehmed Ali’s Reforms

central tazation system, forced conscription, monopolized sale of cash crops, education missions to Europe,

Reforms Under Selim III

Military reform: European trained commanders, increase in troops, embassies in Eruope, increased exposure to Euro thought, taxes, and land confiscations

1806 Rebellion- Ottoman Empire

Janissaries, Derebys, and Ulama unhappy about taxes and other reforms

Mahmud III

Broke up local alliances, used janissaries to confiscate land then in 1826. Janissary massacre, emphasized Ottomanism as national identity

Why Need for Early Ottoman Reforms?

Global stagnation and nationalist rebellions, oil price declined leads to 1876 bankruptcy

Tanzimat (1839–1876)

New taxation system, French KnowersL people sent to France for education who held high roles in govt, individual rights, 1876 Constitution

Abdul-Hamid

After loss in Russo-Turkish War, suspends constitution, increase in political censorship, military reform, pan-islamism

CUP Formation

Forms in military in secret in 1889, Aslab leader becomes exiled

Young Turks

loose confederation of groups including CUP who want to restore constitution

1908: Young Turk Revolt

3rd Army revolted, restored constitution, free press (until 1913), Ottomanism identity, military modernism

1913=> Turkey

Huge losses in the Balkans makes Ottomanism slowly become Turkism

1920s Turkish Revolt

Ottomans During WWI

Back the Central Powers, causing issues between Britain and Ottomans

Battle of Gallipoli

Brits and French launched naval attack to capture Istanbul. Trench warfare leads to British retreat in 1916. Ataturk becomes national hero

Arabs During WWI

Tried to rally Arabs against British, but Ottomans alienated Syrians, leading to them creating a national identity

1916, Sykes-Picot

France: direct control over Lebanon, Coastal Syria, Southern Anatolia. Britain: Iraq, Persian Gulf, Western Iraq, Palestine as international zone

1917: Arab Revolt

Ottomans defeated in Mecca, Arab tribes are funded by British

1920 Son Remso Conference

Britain and France divided Arab territory into nations

Treaty of Sevres

Turkish state isnt possible so splits up the state amongst France and Britain

1922: Abolishment of Sultan and

National rebellion led by Mehmed Kemel, Ankara becomes new capital and creation of anti-imperalist constitution

Greece War

Greece expands to Bursa, but Turkey ends up taking Izmir back by 1922

Lausanne Conference

Turkey retains Anatolia as a sovereign state, Turkey and Greece have a population exchange

Role of language

Turkey makes Turkish lettering instead of Arabic, sends linguist to find new letters for alphabet

Ismail

Suez Canal creation, does well for the economy initially. Buys Egyptian freedom from Ottomans, such as formation of treaties, printing money, and increasing army size

Public Debt Commission

British put people to watch expenditures in Egypt ever since Ismail’s overpersonal spending made them declare bakruptcy

Tawfiq

Replacement for Ismail, lacked legitimacy and led to Ottoman empire largely led by British

Urabi Revolt

Colonel Urabi led popular revolt to demand funding for troops, stop foreign interference, and constitutional limits on Khedive authority. Tawfiq sought outside help leading to British Occupation

Cromer’s policies

1883-1907: British consul in Egypt. Better treatment of peasents, lower taxes, relatively free press, but no money for education, no industrialization

Abbas-Himli III (1892-1914)

European educated Khedive at 14. Hated Cromer, nationalist

Role of Press and Abdullah Harim

Comedic papers that were popular amongst students that led to nationalist activism. Abdullah Narim exiled to Istanbul by end of 1893

Mustafa Kamil

Nationalist leader, made middle class nationalist. Editor of nationalist newspaper

Dinshway Incident

June 11, 1906: All villagers watched as 4 villagers were publically hanged, 12 improsoned and 8 flogged. Made British look like ruthless occupiers.

Egypt in WWI

1914- 100,000+ allied troops stationed in Egypt, draining the area of resources. Middle class- lack of access to staples. High class- price of cotton too high, matrial law

Sa’ad Zaghlul

Led Egyptian elites to meet High Commissioner. but by March, 1919 was exiled.

1919 Revolt

March 9, 1919- student revolt begins, March 11, 1919- full revolt

House of Nation

Zaghul wife considered “Mother of Nation” held meeting at Wadf’s house

British Reaction - 1919

Largely violent- airstrikes, burning villages, dissent about coffeeshops being revolutionary centers

Kajar Dynasty (1794-1925)

Highly inneffective central government due to Iran’s topography. Clergy and Ulama had lots of power of deciphering law. High corruption

Nassir-al-Din

Sold tobacco as concession to British. Eventually repealed concession but then he was assasinated.

Constitutional Revolt, 1917

Led by clergy and merchants, power of purse went to the majles. Very little governent legitimacy and essential anarchy after a while. Britain and Russia divided Iran into spheres of influence

1920: Rise of Reza Shah

British tried to support Kajar Dynasty but that didnt really work.

Reza Shah’s Regime

Gave land to the elites, high taxation, secular schools opening, powerful Ulama, repeal of Sharia Law in most cases, military districts under his rule

Reza Khan's Rise to Power (1921–1926)

Colonel in Cossack brigade; staged 1921 coup, dismissed PM Sayyid Zia, built loyal army, made himself PM (1923), pressured last Qajar shah to "vacation" in Europe, formally became Shah Dec 1925

Reza Shah's Rule Style

Absolutist — police/spy network, censorship, imprisoned/killed opponents, became largest landowner in Iran, used wealth for courtly patronage; ruled by coercion, not legitimacy

Why Iran ≠ Turkey (Key Difference)

Reza Shah did NOT close religious schools unlike Ataturk; Ulama remained powerful in Iran, setting the stage for clerical resistance and eventually the 1979 revolution

WWII & Abdication of Reza Shah (1941)

Britain and Soviets invaded Iran to secure oil and supply routes; feared Reza Shah's ties to Nazi Germany; forced him to abdicate; son Mohammad Reza Shah took over (r. 1941–1979)

Mosaddegh & Oil Nationalization (1951)

Popular PM who nationalized the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC) in 1951; threatened British and American oil interests; hugely popular with Iranian masses

Operation Ajax (1953)

CIA/British operation that overthrew Mosaddegh; bribed military officers, hired mobs; General Zahedi installed as PM; Shah restored to power; became defining symbol of Western betrayal in Iranian memory

The White Revolution (1963)

Shah's modernization program: land reform (hurt religious endowments), women's suffrage, literacy corps, worker profit-sharing; framed as reform to preempt communist revolution; backed by US

Khomeini's Opposition & Exile

Opposed White Revolution as attack on Islam and foreign-backed Westernization; exiled first to Iraq, then France; smuggled cassette tape speeches back into Iran to maintain revolutionary momentum

Velayat-e Faqih

| Khomeini's concept of "rule of the Islamic jurist" — the senior cleric should govern the state; became the ideological foundation of the Islamic Republic after 1979

Causes of the 1979 Revolution

Shah's corruption and wasteful spending; SAVAK repression and no political participation; alienated bazaari merchants; Carter's human rights pressure weakened Shah; broad coalition of Islamists, leftists, and nationalists united against him

The 1979 Revolution

Mass demonstrations forced Shah to flee Jan 1979; Khomeini returned from Paris Feb 1979; Islamic Republic declared; hostage crisis (1979–81) cemented anti-American character of the revolution

Foreign Intervention in Iranian Collective Memory

British oil concessions (1901), spheres of influence (1907), Operation Ajax (1953) — each episode reinforced Iranian distrust of the West and gave the 1979 revolution its radical, anti-imperialist identity

Why Faruq Lost Legitimacy

Personal scandals (gambling, drinking, affairs) while Egyptians were poor; blamed for 1948 defeat against Israel including sending troops with defective weapons; did nothing during Black Saturday (Jan 1952) when mobs burned Cairo; British still occupied Suez Canal Zone under 1936 treaty

The Free Officers & 1952 Coup

Junior/middle-class officers led by Colonel Nasser; blamed Faruq for 1948 disaster; July 23 1952 bloodless coup; Faruq exiled to Italy; RCC (Revolutionary Command Council) took power; General Naguib as figurehead, Nasser as real power

Nasser Consolidates Power

Banned all political parties; placed Naguib under house arrest (1954); mass arrest of Muslim Brotherhood after assassination attempt; arrested socialists, communists, labor unionists; prison camps full by late 1950s

Arab Socialism under Nasser

Land reform — broke up large estates, redistributed to peasants; nationalized banks and major industries; expanded public education and healthcare; state-led industrialization; non-alignment in Cold War (refused to pick US or USSR side)

Suez Crisis (1956)

Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal July 1956 to fund Aswan High Dam after US withdrew loan; Britain, France, Israel secretly planned invasion — Israel attacked Sinai, Britain/France intervened as "peacekeepers"; militarily defeated Egypt BUT US forced all three to withdraw; Nasser kept the canal — military loss but massive political victory

Why Suez Made Nasser a Pan-Arab Hero

Stood up to two former colonial powers and Israel; got invaded and still kept the canal; seen across Arab world as historic victory over Western imperialism; peak of Nasserism and pan-Arab nationalism

The 1967 Naksa (The Setback)

Nasser closed Straits of Tiran and expelled UN peacekeepers; Israel launched preemptive strike June 5 1967; destroyed Arab air forces on the ground in hours; Egypt lost Sinai, Jordan lost West Bank, Syria lost Golan Heights — all in six days

Why 1967 Shattered Nasserism

Not just military defeat — ideological collapse; pan-Arabism had promised Arab unity could defeat Israel; defeat proved it hollow; discredited Arab nationalism as political project; opened door for political Islam as alternative; contrast with 1956: that was military loss but political win — 1967 was both

Six Pillars of Kemalism

Republicanism (abolish Sultanate/Caliphate), Nationalism (Turkish identity), Secularism (religion from state), Populism (sovereignty to people), Reformism (constant modernization), Etatism (state capitalism)

Ataturk's Secular Reforms

Abolished Caliphate (1924); closed religious schools; replaced Islamic law with Swiss Civil Code (1926); replaced lunar calendar with Gregorian; banned the fez; women given right to vote (1934) — before France and Italy

Ataturk vs. Reza Shah — Key Difference |

Ataturk completely broke Ulama power and closed religious schools; Reza Shah left religious schools open → clerics survived in Iran and led 1979 revolution; explains why Turkey stayed secular and Iran didn't

Turkey's Post-WWII Political Trajectory

Inonu allowed multi-party democracy after WWII (US Cold War pressure); Democrat Party won 1950 election — first peaceful transfer of power; joined NATO 1952; military acted as guardian of Kemalism — intervened in 1960, 1971, 1980 whenever elected governments allowed Islam back into public life

Turkey's Cold War Strategic Value

Only NATO member bordering the USSR in the region; US needed Turkey as a bulwark against Soviet expansion; this gave Turkey leverage to join Western institutions and receive US military/economic aid

Saddam's Rise to Power

Joined Ba'th Party 1957 influenced by Nasserism; attempted assassination of Qasim 1959, fled to Egypt; returned 1963 after Ba'thist coup; 1968 coup with al-Bakr against Arif — both from Tikrit, packed institutions with Tikritis; real power behind scenes until 1979 when he forced ailing al-Bakr to resign; July 1979 purge — read 68 "disloyal" names, 28 executed in front of the assembly

Saddam's Reforms

Nationalized oil 1972; used oil revenues for free universal education and healthcare (earned UNESCO award); electricity to every village; 2 million foreign workers by 1980; female literacy and employment dramatically increased; secular legal system abolished most Sharia courts

Why Saddam's Rule Was Complicated

Genuine social achievements existed simultaneously with extreme brutality — same state providing free healthcare was executing political opponents, crushing Kurdish rebellion (1974-75), jailing Shi'a demonstrators (1977, 1979); longevity came from carrots AND sticks together

Saddam's Cult of Personality

Portraits and statues everywhere — buildings, schools, currency, textbooks; dressed as Bedouin, peasant, Kurdish, military, devout Muslim depending on audience; propaganda dramatically increased during Iran-Iraq War

Causes of Iran-Iraq War (1980-88)

Iran allowed Kurdish rebels into its territory; Khomeini called Saddam's regime "secular and heathen" and threatened to inspire Iraq's Shi'a majority; dispute over Shatt al-Arab waterway; Saddam thought it would be an easy victory; US and Arab Gulf states supported Iraq

Consequences of Iran-Iraq War

400,000+ dead, strategic draw; Iraq $80+ billion in debt, $14 billion owed to Kuwait; couldn't continue pre-war social services; Iran's Islamic government strengthened — war gave cover to crush opposition; debt to Kuwait became direct trigger for 1990 Gulf War invasion

Sadat's "Hero of the Crossing" — October War 1973

Egypt and Syria launched surprise attack on Israel October 6 (Yom Kippur/Ramadan) 1973; Egyptian army successfully crossed the Suez Canal, breaking the Bar-Lev Line — first Arab military success since 1948; goal was not to destroy Israel but to reclaim honor lost in 1967 and force diplomatic negotiations

Why 1973 Restored Egyptian Honor

Egypt didn't win the war outright — Israel counterattacked and crossed the canal; but the initial crossing was a massive psychological victory after 1967 humiliation; Sadat positioned as "Hero of the Crossing"; gave Egypt leverage to negotiate from a position of dignity rather than defeat

Infitah — Sadat's Open Door Policy

Abandoned Nasser's Arab Socialism; opened Egypt to foreign investment and free market capitalism; removed subsidies on basic goods; benefited Egyptian upper class and foreign investors; widened inequality between rich and poor dramatically

1977 Bread Riots |

Sadat removed subsidies on bread and basic food staples as part of Infitah reforms; massive popular uprising across Egypt — people literally rioting over food prices; Sadat reversed the subsidy cuts under pressure; showed deep contradiction between his economic reforms and the needs of ordinary Egyptians

Camp David Accords (1978)

Sadat flew to Jerusalem 1977 — first Arab leader to officially visit Israel; mediated by US President Carter at Camp David; Egypt recognized Israel's right to exist; Israel returned Sinai Peninsula to Egypt; framework for Palestinian autonomy (largely unfulfilled)

Consequences of Camp David for Egypt

Egypt expelled from the Arab League; Arab states cut diplomatic and economic ties; Egypt isolated from the Arab world; Sadat seen as traitor to Palestinian cause; Muslim Brotherhood and Islamists furious — Sadat assassinated by Islamist soldiers during military parade October 1981

Sadat vs. Nasser — Key Contrast

Nasser: Arab socialism, nationalization, pan-Arabism, anti-Western, non-aligned; Sadat: free market Infitah, peace with Israel, pro-American, abandoned pan-Arab project; Sadat's choices made Egypt prosperous for elites but isolated regionally and vulnerable domestically