class 282 final

Western European hunter gatherers

inhabitants of Western Europe at end of ice age era

• blue eyed, dark skinned, comparatively tall

• no agriculture

early European farmers

immediate origin is the Middle East

• practiced agriculture

• neolithic “New Stone Age”

• no use of metal, new techniques for forming implements from stone

EEF crossing

crossed into Balkans in 6000’s BP; moved in two separate waves into western, northern europe

supplanted there WEGH population

EEF population

early intermixture of males and females equally with local populations of WEHG assimilated; later, mostly males mating with females

• previous males were killed → evidence of genocide

western steppe herders

distinct population, descended from Eastern Hunter Gatherers

inhabited steppes of Europe, 4000 bc

• yamnaya culture

western steppe herders culture

intermixture of some EEF genetics; speak Indo-European language

• invade Europe, displace EEF

Romans

northern most latin community — Latium

• plains in central region on western shore of Italy

Indo-European languages

italic languages, central, southern Italy

latin noticeably different than Oscan/Umbrian languages

-- Romance languages

Literary Historical Tradition Rome

later 3rd century BC

roman literature inspired by Greek literature

foundation/kingdom of Rome

Romulus and Remus = mythological brothers, consulted story of their origins

squabbling over who is to found new city, omens are unclear and Romulus kills Remus

seven kings

literary tradition, foundations dated to ca. 753 bc by adding reigns of kings

• fixed date of foundation of Republic on basis of list of magistrates is used for dating

problems with literary tradition

too few kings are known to have existed for period from foundation to end of kingdom

• seven kings/245 years = an average reign of 35 years

reigns are schematized, may have a “specialty”

romulus

founder of a number of basic institutions

numa

“religious king”

evidence in favour of literary tradition

names of kings plausible, created like regular Italic names -→ not expected of pure fiction

rex sacrorum

republican priesthood “king of sacrifices”

in democratic Athens, Basileus carries on duties of kings

interrex

republican institution of “in-between king”, serving as special official to oversee election of new king after death of old king. position was continued under the republic, as there were no consuls

consul

chief magistrate

inscriptional evidence of roman kingdom

fragmentary inscription clearly mentions the rex (“king”)

Archaeological evidence for Roman Kingdom

based on durable physical remains, though hard to correlate with literary evidence. in the past, archaeological evidence was interpreted on the basis of literary evidence

answers different questions than literary evidence

Bronze Age of Italy

1000’s BC; marked by the exclusive use of Bronze

• copper with tin alloy for strength

latial

archaeological period in Latium

when did romans arrive in Latium

cremation culture starts in central Europe

seemingly genetic continuity with both neighbouring populations and with Bronze Age populations

Etruscans

non-into European language, related to no other in Italy . Etruscans had a matrilineal culture, making them culturally indistinguishable from other Italians

Etruscan genetic evidence

some info-european DNA, basically like other Italic populations

there was no sign of distinctly Anatolian DNA

leaders in development

Etruscans — more advanced social/political organization. they expanded political control south in Late Iron Age

constitution of Kingdom

Etruscan dynasty (literary tradition) with elective monarchy. there was an assembly of adult males

curia

political unit based on heredity

gens/gentes

“clan”, or family like unit that declines in importance under republic; was later replaced in importance by “nuclear family”

tribus

4 per city, 20 per countryside. the names of rural “tribes” are associated with important gentes, which is an important element later in the Republican constitution

populous

later meaning “body politic”, the word comes from “army” which is derived from populari: “devastate”

assembly of “army” replaces earlier assembly of curries

Roman names

praenomen, nomen, and cognomen

praenomen

first name, limited In number with only 10 common. praenomen aren regularly abbreviated

nomen

name of all members of the gens, sense of relation declines over time

cognomen

starts as nickname, I.e. Brutus = stupid, Crassus = thick, luscious = bleary eyed

comes to be inherited by descendants, official part of name only by first century BC

fall of the monarchy

dated to 507 bc according to fasti, taking place at time of Etruscan withdrawal from S Italy

overthrow of tyranny, modelled on behaviour of “tyrants” in Greek literary tradition

• “rape of Lucretia”

fasti

ancient roman calendars or registers listing legal days, magistrates, festivals, and triumphs

sack of Rome

386 bc, 390 ac cording to late republican chronology

varro

scholar who tries to establish a full chronology

greek synchronism

two events taking place at the same time

fasti sack of Rome

4 years are missing in period between supposed sack and 300 bc, various fudges created to fill in the gap

4 entirely made up years with only dictators, expanding one year of anarchy to 5

varronian tradition foundation of republic

509

pomerium

sacred boundary in early republican Rome

domus vs militia

home vs military service; anything outside of the pomerium is militia

• reflects early period when roman territory was very small

early republican Rome

reflects early period when roman territory very small, very rudimentary state involved in warfare, with some legal decisions also

3 elements of early state

1. magistrates

2. senate

3. assemblies

magistrates

elected by assemblies

imperium

senior magistrates hold imperium, which is the old power of kings used to command armies

use is restricted within pomerium

colleges

magistrates elected in groups of equals, negative prevails over positive and prevents tyranny through rivalry

annual tenure

quick turn over prevents establishment of permanent power

no pay, only wealthy landowners hold office

consuls

chief magistrates at start of the republic, replacing kings with only two per year. consuls hold power of life and death, comes to be restricted within the pomerium

consuls also command roman armies through the ability to execute the disobedient

eponymous

year named after consuls

dictators

regular office, no bad association of the word yet (later republic). dictators were not proper magistrates, used to prevent split command during military emergencies

dictators were appointed by consuls, and one consul sometimes appointed his colleague

dictator tenure

6 month tenure, stood above regular magistrates; later used to stand in for absent consuls (i.e. when off on distant campaigns) for holding elections and performing religious duties

dictator end

fell in 200 bc, were not needed once there were large numbers of magistrates, felt out of sync with oligarchic form of government

censors

violates normal rules for magistrates, two censors who hold census and let out state contracts as well as enrolling senators

the census determines political status of the population

censors timeline

held office for 18 months, elected every 5 years

quaestors

quaestors have no imperium, they are financial officials who began as aid to consuls (1/consul). more were created over time (eventually 20) with one for each magistrate with imperium

senate

body of ex-magistrates who are derived from old council of kings (senate = elder)

senates were called into session by a magistrate, decrees not laws with advice hard to ignore

senate control

gains control over provincial assignments, state finances

assemblies

limited powers of deliberation, called into session by magistrates

they could only accept or reject magistrate proposals, and voted by units

• each unit has one vote determined by majority of its voters. the outcome of the election is determined by counting the single votes of the units

powers of the assembly

electing magistrates, vote on laws, and determine outcome of legal cases

centuriate assemblies

originaly a military unit of 100 men, could have hugely different number of voters

real army changes, based on census qualifications

census classes

5 classes based on wealth, with higher classes having higher minimum qualifications and higher obligations in military equipment

centuriate assembly number

187 centuries divided among the 5 classes, with a few extra for special military functions giving a total of 193 centuries

the first census plus cavalry control half of votes, everyone who does not meet qualifications for military service votes in one century

powers of centuriate assembly

elect magistrates with imperium (soldiery electing senior commanders), pass laws, and decide capital trials

tribal assembly

voting units of geographical tribes, with number of tribes for Rome always being 4

20 rural tribes at stay of republic, increases as Rome annexes territory

• final total of 31 rural tribes

powers of tribal assemblies

elect magistrates without imperium, decide non-capital trials (those involving a fine)

patricians

distinctive attire, right to hold certain offices and priesthoods. status existed under kingdom and founded by Romulus

patrician monopoly

established ca 450 according to fasti, families of present office holders attested elsewhere setting up hereditary monopoly

plebs

collective body of everyone not a patrician, individuals are called plebeians

struggle of orders

long term conflict of general public against magistrates and senate by rioting, succession (withdrawal from city), presenting of demands through tribunes

aim of struggle of orders

economic redress for poor, end of patrician monopoly of office

tribunes

representatives if the plebs, eventually ten each year. they were wealthy plebeians who acted as spokespeople of the plebs

populous

plebs + patricians

concilium plebis

assembly of plebs, voting decided by tribes

plebiscite

decision of plebs, not binding on populus

elections of tribunes

military tribunes

junior officers, 6 per legion but not to be confused with tribunes of the plebs

special tribunes frequently elected in place of consuls, holding consular power but not imperium

military tribune purpose

1. to allow plebeians to hold senior command (but most are patricians?)

2. to provide more commanders

resolution of struggle of others

367 bc, after prolonged strife the praetor was created

consulship was open to plebeians, one patrician and one plebeian. later other offices and priesthood opened, ones not opened showed patrician status

praetor

resolution to struggle of orders, junior colleague of consuls with six lictors compared to 12 for consuls

plebiscite force of law

287, apply to populous. tribunate was recognized as an official position: could summon senate, pass legislation, intervene with magistrates, but Veto has to be given in person in Rome

nobility

wealthy plebeians who hold office soon combine with patricians and give up alliance with plebs.

anyone with a consul as an ancestor is considered noble

nobility makeup

wealthy families who control public life over the generations, noble tribunes use assembly of plebs for benefit of senate

Oscan-umbrians

along the Apennines from east of Rome southwards

greek colonies

in south, settled from late 700’s BC onwards

Etruscans

North of Rome

Gauls

Celts = native term, in far north, advancing from Central Europe In 1000’s

• france, spain, Britain, balkans

sabines

Oscan Umbrian population to the east of Rome, little evidence for their language

woman supposedly kidnapped during a festival under Romulus, dads at first outraged and then war ensues with women intervening on behalf of new husbands

sabines mythological story

Titus Tatius a Sabine co-king with Romulus

Latins

to the south of Rome, Rome a part of Latium

Latin League

30 latin populi, loose confederation with common religious rites and leader chosen on ad hoc basis for emergencies

connubiam, commerciamo

right of intermarriage, upholding of private contracts

roman kings attempt to subjugate Latium?

latin league purpose

formed as a defensive alliance of villages and tribes in Latium including early Rome for mutual protection against external threats

Foedus Cassianum 493

treaty of Cassius, named after consul who negotiated it for Rome

defnsive pact between the Romans and Latins, roman aggression halted because of invasion by Umbrians, forcing cooperation of Romans and Latins

umbrian hill tribes invade Latium

want nice farmland in Latium, Umbrian languages spoke to east of Rome across Apennines — related to latin but not closely

causes cooperation of Latins and Rome

Etruscans

Etruscan city states unable to cooperate, romans could always find Etruscan ally in wars with Etruscan towns

war with veii

directly to north of Rome across tiber, capture and destruction of city first major expansion of Roman territory

Roman territory more than doubled, divided among Roman cirtizens

Gauls

invaded italy from Central Europe, settled in N. Italy

defeat romans at alliance, capture Rome itself (390)

the defeat is shocking to Romans, but a temporary setback in Roman expansion

Latin Revolt

roman pressure on Latium resumes soon after Galic capture of Rome, latin communities revolt 341

latin league dissolved 338, romans assume rites of league with closest latin cities annexed