extra for social complex exams.

mostly concept comparisons.

How are the halo effect and primacy effect related?

Primacy effect causes early information to strongly shape impressions, while halo effect causes one positive trait to influence unrelated evaluations; together, early positive impressions can shape overall judgment.

How are the halo effect and stereotyping similar?

Both involve generalizing limited information into broader judgments about a person or group.

How are conformity and obedience different?

Conformity involves pressure from a group, while obedience involves following direct commands from authority.

How are informational and normative influence different?

Informational influence is driven by desire to be correct, while normative influence is driven by desire for social acceptance.

How are Sherif’s and Asch’s conformity studies different?

Sherif studied conformity in ambiguous situations, while Asch studied conformity despite clear correct answers.

How is Le Bon connected to deindividuation theory?

Le Bon argued crowds reduce rational individuality through anonymity and contagion, ideas that later influenced deindividuation theories.

Which concepts is Gustave Le Bon associated with?

Crowd psychology, contagion, anonymity, irrational crowd behavior, and early foundations of deindividuation ideas.

How is Zimbardo connected to deindividuation?

Zimbardo argued anonymity and reduced self-awareness can weaken personal responsibility and increase impulsive or harmful behavior.

Which major concepts is Zimbardo associated with?

Stanford Prison Experiment, deindividuation, situational power, role conformity, and The Lucifer Effect.

What did Zimbardo argue in The Lucifer Effect?

Ordinary people can commit harmful acts under powerful situational pressures.

Which famous prison abuse scandal did Zimbardo comment on as an expert?

Abu Ghraib prison abuses.

How did the Stanford Prison Experiment relate to role conformity?

Participants adopted behaviors associated with assigned social roles, demonstrating situational influence.

How are Milgram’s and Zimbardo’s studies similar?

Both emphasized situational power and how ordinary individuals can engage in harmful behavior under social pressures.

How are Milgram’s and Asch’s studies different?

Asch studied conformity to group norms, while Milgram studied obedience to authority commands.

What concept best explains harmful behavior in anonymous crowds?

Deindividuation.

What concept best explains changing behavior to fit a group?

Conformity.

What concept best explains following direct orders from authority?

Obedience.

What concept best explains reduced effort in group tasks?

Social loafing.

What concept best explains helping less when others are present?

Bystander effect.

What concept best explains seeing connections between unrelated events?

Illusory correlation.

How is illusory correlation related to stereotypes?

People may falsely associate behaviors or traits with certain groups, strengthening stereotypes.

How are availability heuristic and representativeness heuristic different?

Availability relies on ease of recall, while representativeness relies on similarity to a prototype.

How are self-serving bias and fundamental attribution error different?

Self-serving bias protects one’s self-esteem, while fundamental attribution error overemphasizes dispositional explanations for others.

How are actor-observer bias and fundamental attribution error related?

Both involve overemphasizing dispositional causes, but actor-observer bias compares judgments of self versus others.

Which attribution bias involves overestimating personality causes in others?

Fundamental attribution error.

Which attribution bias involves explaining successes internally and failures externally?

Self-serving bias.

Which attribution bias involves believing others share your own views?

False consensus effect.

How are stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination connected?

Stereotypes are beliefs, prejudice is attitude, and discrimination is behavior toward group members.

How are social identity theory and ingroup bias connected?

Identifying strongly with an ingroup increases favoritism toward that group.

What concept best explains favoring one’s own group over outsiders?

Ingroup bias.

What concept best explains anxiety about confirming stereotypes?

Stereotype threat.

How are cognitive dissonance and self-perception theory different?

Dissonance theory involves psychological discomfort, while self-perception theory involves inferring attitudes from behavior without tension.

How are central and peripheral routes to persuasion different?

Central route involves careful argument processing, while peripheral route relies on superficial cues.

What concept best explains attitude change after insufficient external justification?

Cognitive dissonance.

What concept best explains increased liking through familiarity?

Mere exposure effect.

How are transformational and transactional leadership different?

Transformational leadership inspires through vision and identity, while transactional leadership relies on exchanges and rewards.

How are servant leadership and transformational leadership similar?

Both emphasize follower development and positive interpersonal influence.

How are Theory X and Theory Y different?

Theory X assumes workers dislike work and need control, while Theory Y assumes workers are motivated and capable of responsibility.

How are organizational culture and leadership related according to Schein?

Leaders create, reinforce, and transmit organizational culture through values and behavior.

What concept best explains leaders gaining influence by representing group identity?

Social identity theory of leadership.

How are prototypical leadership and social identity theory connected?

Leaders are influential when seen as representing core group norms and values.

How are group polarization and groupthink different?

Group polarization strengthens initial views, while groupthink suppresses dissent to maintain consensus.

What concept best explains suppression of dissent for group harmony?

Groupthink.

How are social facilitation and social inhibition related?

Presence of others improves simple-task performance but impairs difficult-task performance.

What concept best explains better performance on simple tasks around others?

Social facilitation.

What concept best explains worse performance on difficult tasks around others?

Social inhibition.

How are anchoring and objectification different in social representation theory?

Anchoring classifies unfamiliar ideas into known categories, while objectification turns abstract ideas into concrete images.

How are diffusion, propagation, and propaganda different in social representation theory?

Diffusion spreads information broadly, propagation reinforces group-consistent ideas, and propaganda promotes polarized ideological positions.

What concept best explains changing behavior because everyone else seems to accept a norm?

Pluralistic ignorance or normative influence depending on context.

How are face theory and politeness theory connected?

Both examine how communication protects social dignity and manages interpersonal threats.

How are complementary and crossed transactions different in transactional analysis?

Complementary transactions follow expected ego-state patterns, while crossed transactions disrupt expected communication flow.

What concept best explains hidden motives in communication exchanges?

Ulterior transactions.

Which researchers are associated with heuristics and cognitive biases?

Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman.

Which researchers are associated with misinformation and eyewitness memory distortion?

Elizabeth Loftus and colleagues.

How are social comparison theory and self-esteem connected?

People evaluate themselves relative to others, influencing self-esteem positively or negatively.

How are upward and downward social comparison different?

Upward comparison involves comparing to superior others, while downward comparison involves comparing to worse-off others.