Unit 0

critical thinking

thinking that doesn’t automatically accept arguments and conclusions; asks questions, evaluates evidence, discerns hidden biases, and assesses conclusions

hindsight bias

tendency to believe after learning an outcome that one would’ve foreseen it (“I knew it all along”)

peer reviewers

scientific experts who evaluate a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy

theory

explanation organizing observations and predicting behaviors or events

hypothesis

testable prediction implied by a theory

falsifiable

possibility an idea, hypothesis or theory can be disproven by observation or experimentation

operational definitions

carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

replication

repeating the essence of a study to see if the basic finding can be replicated

case study

non-experimental technique where an individual or group is studied in depth

naturalistic observation

non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without interfering

survey

non-experimental technique for obtaining self-reported behaviors of a particular group through questioning a representative sample of the group

social desirability bias

bias from people responding in a way they presume the researcher wants or expects

self-report bias

bias when people report their behavior inaccurately

sampling bias

flawed sampling process producing an unrepresentative sample

population

all those in a group being studied from which samples may be drawn

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors relate to each other and can predict each other

correlation coefficient

statistical index of the relationship between two variables (-1.00 to +1.00)

variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

scatterplot

graphed cluster of dots that represent the values of two variables; slope suggests direction of relationship between the variables

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists or perceiving a stronger than actual relationship

regression toward the mean

tendency for extreme scores to fall back toward the average

experiment

research method with an investigation manipulating independent variables to observe the effect (DV) by random assignment of participants

experimental group

group exposed to the active ingredient (one version of the IV)

control group

group not exposed to the active ingredient

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance

single blind procedure

when the research participants don’t know if they’ve received a treatment or placebo

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone

double blind procedure

research participants and research staff don’t know who received placebo or treatment

independent variable

the factor that is manipulated

confounding variable

factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results

experimental bias

bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs

dependent variable

outcome that is measured; variable that changes when IV is manipulated

validity

extent to which an experiment predicts what it’s supposed to

quantitative

numerical data

qualitative

in-depth narrative data not translated into numbers

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics

histogram

bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

mode

most frequently occurring score

mean

average of data

median

middle score

percentile rank

percentage of scores that are lower than a given score

skewed distribution

representation of scores that lack symmetry around the average value

range

difference between the highest and lowest scores

standard deviation

how much scores vary around the mean

normal curve

symmetrical bell shaped curve

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to inter from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

meta analysis

statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

statistical significance

statistical statement of how likely it is a result occurred by chance (null hypothesis- occurred by chance)

effect size

strength of the relationship between two variables (larger the effect, the more one variable can be explained by the other)

psychology

scientific study of the mind and behavior, aiming to understand why humans and animals think, feel, and act the way they do

confirmation bias

tendency to search for, interpret, favor, or recall information that confirms one’s pre-existing beliefs while disregarding contradictory evidence

overconfidence

cognitive bias overestimating one’s knowledge, abilities, or judgment, believing that their performance is better than others

meta-analysis

combining the results of multiple independent studies on the same topic to make a generalization

sample

set of individuals selected from a larger population to participate in a research study

experimenter bias

unconscious, unintentional influence a researcher exerts on a study’s outcome based on experience or beliefs

random sample

set of individuals selected from a larger population where every member has an equal probability of being selected

convenience sampling

non-probability sampling technique where participants are selected based on their ready availability and willingness to participate, rather than through random selection

representative sample

carefully chosen sample group that accurately reflects the characteristic of the whole population

experimental methodology

scientific approach used to determine cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating an independent variable to measure its effect on a dependent variable

non-experimental methodology

research that lacks the manipulation of an independent variable and/or random assignment of participants

directionality problem

flaw in correlational research where two variables are related but it is impossible to determine if one causes the other

third variable problem

when a hidden confounding variable causes both studied variables, creating a false correlation between them

placebo

an inert substance or procedure that produces only produces a real positive health improvement due to the patient’s belief, expectation, or conditioning (the substance doesn’t chemically do anything though)

likert scales

psychometric, close-ended survey tool used to measure attitudes, opinions, and personality traits (the lego face scale in Miss Edward’s office)

institutional review

administrative committee that reviews, approves, and monitors research involving human participants to protect their rights, welfare, and privacy

informed consent

mandatory process where practitioners share info about treatments or research to ensure participants make educated, voluntary decisions

informed asent

affirmative agreement by a minor to participate in research or treatment, acknowledging they cannot provide legal consent

protect from harm

ethical principle requiring researchers to ensure participants’ physical and mental well-being throughout the process

confidentiality

ethical and legal obligation restricting disclosure of client information to third parties without written consent

research confederates

an actor working with researchers who poses as a fellow participant but whose behavior is predetermined to influence the study’s results

debriefing

an ethical, post-experimental process where researchers provide participants with full information about a study’s true purpose, methods, and findings

measure of central tendency

descriptive statistics that identify a single value representing the center or typical score of a data distribution

bimodal distribution

a probability distribution with two distinct peaks

measures of variation

descriptive statistics that quantify how spread out, dispersed, or clustered a set of scores is around the mean