VCE Biology

What are the two main types of cells?

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

What are the three tenets of cell theory?

1. All organisms are composed of cells. 2. The cell is the basic unit of structure. 3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.

What acronym helps remember the attributes of living things?

MRS GREN (Movement, Respiration, Sensitivity,Growth, Reproduction, Excretion, Nutrition)

What is the function of the cell membrane?

Controls what enters and exits the cell.

What is the role of nuclear material in a cell?

Contains instructions for all processes and structures, made by DNA.

What is cytosol?

The fluid filling inside of the cell.

What is the average size of prokaryotic cells compared to eukaryotic cells?

Prokaryotic cells are generally 10 times smaller than plant and animal cells.

What are some common features of prokaryotic cells?

list 7 Capsules, cell wall, cell membrane, large circular DNA, ribosomes, plasmids, cytosol.

What are the main organelles/ features found in eukaryotic cells?

list 7 Nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum,Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, cytoskeleton.

What is the primary function of ribosomes?

Protein synthesis.

What is the function of mitochondria?

Site of cellular respiration.

What is the difference between rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

Rough ER has ribosomes and synthesizes proteins; Smooth ER lacks ribosomes and synthesizes lipids.

What is the role of the Golgi apparatus?

Modifies, sorts, and packages materials from the ER for secretion or delivery to other locations.

What are lysosomes responsible for?

Hydrolyzing macromolecules and recycling cellular components.

What is the significance of the surface area to volume ratio in cells?

It limits cell size and affects the efficiency of material exchange.

How do cells increase their surface area without increasing volume?

By folding the plasma membrane.

What is the function of peroxisomes?

Catalyze reactions that produce hydrogen peroxide and break it down into water.

What is the structure of the nucleus?

Enclosed by a double membrane with pores that regulate material entry and exit.

What is the role of the nucleolus?

Synthesis of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and assembly of ribosomal subunits.

What is the function of chloroplasts?

Site of photosynthesis in plant cells.

What is the central vacuole's function in plant cells?

Storage of substances and maintaining turgor pressure.

What is the importance of carbon in biological molecules?

Carbon is versatile and can bond with many elements to form complex biomolecules.

What are the chemical building blocks needed for life?

Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Hydrogen.

What does the term 'autophagy' refer to?

The process by which lysosomes recycle the cell's own organic material.

What is the function of the cytoskeleton?

Provides structural support and facilitates cell

movement.

What are the two types of ribosomes found in eukaryotic cells?

Free ribosomes in the cytosol and bound ribosomes on the rough ER.

What is the primary function of the cytoskeleton?

To support organelles, provide strength, determine cell shape, enable mobility, and facilitate movement of organelles.

What are cilia and flagella?

Cilia are short, hair-like structures, while flagella are long, tail-like structures that provide movement for unicellular eukaryotes.

What distinguishes protists from other eukaryotes?

Protists are generally unicellular and do not fit into other groups, sometimes forming colonies like algae.

What is a central vacuole and its function?

A central vacuole is exclusive to plant cells, containing inorganic ions and water, important for maintaining turgor pressure.

What is the endosymbiont theory?

It explains the similarities between mitochondria and chloroplasts, suggesting an early eukaryotic cell engulfed a prokaryotic cell, which became a functional organism.

What are the main components of the plasma membrane according to the fluid mosaic model?

The plasma membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer, embedded proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates.

What is the role of cholesterol in the plasma membrane?

Cholesterol provides flexibility to the membrane by reducing fluidity at higher temperatures and increasing it at lower temperatures.

What are the two types of plasma membrane proteins?

Integral proteins, which are embedded in the bilayer, and peripheral proteins, which are anchored to the membrane's exterior.

What is the function of transport proteins in the plasma membrane?

Transport proteins facilitate the movement of hydrophilic substances across the membrane, which cannot easily pass through the phospholipid bilayer.

What is the difference between passive and active transport?

Passive transport does not require ATP and moves substances along the concentration gradient, while active transport requires ATP and moves substances against the gradient.

What is osmosis?

Osmosis is the movement of water across a membrane from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration.

What is facilitated diffusion?

Facilitated diffusion is the process of transporting large polar molecules across a membrane with the help of proteins.

What is the function of the cell wall in plant cells?

The cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane, prevents over-expansion, and helps the cell withstand turgor pressure.

What are the roles of carbohydrates attached to proteins and lipids in the plasma membrane?

Carbohydrates form glycoproteins and glycolipids, playing a role in cell recognition and identity.

What is the significance of the phospholipid bilayer?

The phospholipid bilayer creates a hydrophobic region that prevents the free passage of hydrophilic molecules, maintaining cell integrity.

What is the role of ribosomes in chloroplasts?

Ribosomes in chloroplasts are involved in protein synthesis, including proteins necessary for photosynthesis.

What is the function of the stroma in chloroplasts?

The stroma is the fluid surrounding thylakoids where the Calvin cycle (light-independent photosynthesis) occurs.

What is the role of the plasma membrane as a selective barrier?

The plasma membrane allows for different reactions to occur in the same cell by selectively transporting materials between internal and external environments.

What is the process of phagocytosis?

Phagocytosis is the process by which a cell engulfs large particles or cells, forming a food vacuole that is digested by lysosomes.

What is the difference between simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion?

Simple diffusion occurs directly through the membrane without assistance, while facilitated diffusion requires transport proteins for larger or polar molecules.

What is the significance of the double membrane in mitochondria and chloroplasts?

The double membrane supports the endosymbiont theory, indicating these organelles were once independent prokaryotic cells.

What is the function of the contractile vacuole?

The contractile vacuole helps maintain water levels in cells, particularly in freshwater organisms.

What is the role of integral proteins in the plasma membrane?

Integral proteins span the membrane and are involved in transport and communication across the membrane.

What is the role of anchorage proteins in the plasma membrane?

Anchorage proteins connect the intracellular cytoskeleton to the extracellular matrix, providing structural support.

What happens during cell division in animal cells?

Centrioles play a crucial role in organizing the mitotic spindle and ensuring proper chromosome separation.

What is the function of the light- dependent reactions in photosynthesis?

Light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoids and convert light energy into chemical energy (ATP and NADPH).

What is osmotic flow?

The net movement of H2O in osmosis.

What is an isotonic solution?

A solution having an equal solute concentration to that of the cell's.

What happens to a cell in a hypotonic solution?

The cell swells or bursts due to an influx of water.

What is the effect of a hypertonic solution on a cell?

The cell shrinks due to water loss into the extracellular environment.

What is active transport?

The movement of molecules against a concentration gradient, requiring ATP.

What is endocytosis?

The bulk transport of materials into a cell.

What is phagocytosis?

A type of endocytosis where solid materials are engulfed by the cell.

What is pinocytosis?

A type of endocytosis where the cell engulfs fluid or small particles.

What is receptor-mediated endocytosis?

A specific form of pinocytosis that uses receptor proteins to facilitate uptake.

What is exocytosis?

The bulk transport of materials out of a cell.

What is the overall equation for photosynthesis?

6H2O

Where does photosynthesis take place in plants?

In the chloroplasts of mesophyll cells in leaves.

What pigment is responsible for absorbing light in photosynthesis?

Chlorophyll.

What are the two stages of photosynthesis?

Light-dependent reactions and light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle).

What occurs during the light- dependent stage of photosynthesis?

Light energy is used to split water into oxygen and hydrogen ions, producing ATP and NADPH.

What is the Calvin cycle?

The light-independent stage of photosynthesis that converts CO2 and H

What factors affect the rate of photosynthesis?

Light intensity, CO2 concentration, and temperature.

What is binary fission?

A method of asexual reproduction in prokaryotes where one parent cell divides into two identical daughter cells.

What are the main phases of the eukaryotic cell cycle?

Interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis.

What happens during interphase?

The cell grows and replicates its DNA in preparation for division.

What are the stages of mitosis?

Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

What occurs during prophase?

Chromosomes condense, the spindle forms, andthe nuclear membrane breaks down.

What is cytokinesis?

The division of the cytoplasm to form two daughter cells after mitosis.

What is apoptosis?

A regulated process of programmed cell death.

What are checkpoints in the cell cycle?

Regulatory mechanisms that ensure the proper completion of the cell cycle and prevent errors.

What is the limiting factor in photosynthesis?

The factor that is in the shortest supply and restricts the rate of photosynthesis.

What are the main checkpoints in the cell cycle?

G1 checkpoint, G2 checkpoint, and M checkpoint.

What does the G2 checkpoint check for?

Completeness and lack of damage in replicated DNA.

What occurs at the M checkpoint?

Ensures that sister chromatids are correctly attached to microtubules during metaphase.

What happens if an error is detected at a checkpoint?

The cell cycle is delayed or aborted until the error is fixed.

What triggers apoptosis?

Damage to DNA, dysfunctional cells, or signals from the immune system.

What are the two mechanisms of apoptosis?

Intrinsic (mitochondrial pathway) and extrinsic (death receptor pathway).

What is the outcome of apoptosis?

Cell shrinkage, bleb formation, and cleanup of apoptotic bodies through phagocytosis.

How does cancer relate to cell cycle regulation?

Cancer results from mutations in cell cycle genes leading to unregulated cell division.

What is contact inhibition?

Normal cells stop dividing when overcrowding occurs; cancer cells do not exhibit this behavior.

What is cell differentiation?

The process by which cells become specialized for specific functions.

What are stem cells?

Unspecialized cells that can differentiate into specific cell types and have the ability to renew themselves.

What is the difference between totipotent and pluripotent stem cells?

Totipotent cells can become all cell types including placenta; pluripotent cells can become all cell types except placenta.

What are multipotent stem cells?

Stem cells that can differentiate into a closely related family of cells.

What are the three primary germ layers?

Ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.

What ethical concerns are associated with embryonic stem cell research?

The extraction of stem cells from embryos raises questions about the value of life and the fate of unused embryos.

What is induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)?

Stem cells created by reprogramming specialized adult cells to an undifferentiated embryonic state.

What is the role of mitochondria in cellular respiration?

Mitochondria produce ATP, the energy currency of the cell, through aerobic respiration.

What is the equation for cellular respiration?

C6H12O6

What are the three stages of aerobic cellular respiration?

Glycolysis, Krebs cycle (Citric Acid Cycle), and Electron Transport Chain.

What occurs during glycolysis?

Glucose is split into two pyruvate molecules,producing a net gain of 2 ATP.

What is produced during the Krebs cycle?

ATP, CO2, and H