AP EURO REVIEW: USEFUL TERMS

Cosimo de Medici

Florentine banker and political leader who used wealth from the Medici bank to patronize Renaissance art and scholarship while maintaining unofficial control over Florence

Lorenzo de Medici

Grandson of Cosimo who ruled Florence and expanded artistic patronage but contributed to the financial decline of the Medici banking empire

Savonarola

Dominican friar who established a theocratic regime in Florence, condemned Renaissance excess, and led the Bonfire of the Vanities before execution

Petrarch

Italian humanist considered the father of Renaissance humanism who emphasized classical revival and individual expression

Pico della Mirandola

Humanist philosopher who wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man, emphasizing human potential and free will

Lorenzo Valla

Humanist scholar who used textual analysis to expose the Donation of Constantine as a forgery and promoted secular values

Boccaccio

Renaissance author of the Decameron who depicted realistic human behavior and criticized social norms

Castiglione

Author of The Book of the Courtier which defined the ideal Renaissance noble through grace, education, and political skill

Machiavelli

Political thinker who wrote The Prince advocating pragmatic, secular, and sometimes ruthless methods of maintaining power

Erasmus

Christian humanist who criticized Church corruption in Praise of Folly while promoting education and reform from within

Jan van Eyck

Flemish painter who perfected oil painting techniques and contributed to the Northern Renaissance focus on detail and realism

Thomas More

English humanist who wrote Utopia criticizing social inequality and was executed for opposing Henry VIII

Bosch

Painter known for complex religious symbolism and surreal, moralistic imagery reflecting late medieval concerns

New Monarchies

Centralized states in France, England, and Spain that strengthened royal authority and reduced feudal power between 1450 and 1600

Thomas a Kempis

Author of The Imitation of Christ emphasizing personal devotion and inner spirituality over external rituals

John Wycliffe

Early reformer who criticized Church wealth and authority and advocated for vernacular scripture

Martin Luther

German monk who initiated the Protestant Reformation by challenging indulgences and papal authority

Frederick the Wise

German prince who protected Luther from execution, allowing Protestant ideas to spread

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor who defended Catholicism but struggled to suppress Protestantism due to political fragmentation

Anabaptists

Radical Protestant group advocating adult baptism and separation of church and state, often persecuted

Zwingli

Swiss reformer who rejected Catholic sacraments and viewed communion as symbolic

John Calvin

Reformer who established a theocratic state in Geneva and emphasized predestination and discipline

Henry VIII

English king who broke from the Catholic Church to form the Church of England for political and dynastic reasons

Thomas Cromwell

Advisor to Henry VIII who engineered the English Reformation and expanded royal authority

Elizabeth I

English monarch who established the Elizabethan Religious Settlement creating a moderate Protestant Church

Ignatius Loyola

Founder of the Jesuits who promoted education and missionary work during the Counter-Reformation

Teresa of Avila

Spanish mystic who reformed the Carmelite order and emphasized personal spiritual experience

Vasco da Gama

Portuguese explorer who established a direct sea route to India, expanding global trade networks

Magellan

Explorer whose expedition completed the first circumnavigation of the globe, demonstrating global interconnectedness

Catherine de Medici

French queen who influenced politics during the Wars of Religion and sought to balance Catholic and Protestant factions

Henry IV

French king who converted to Catholicism to secure power and issued the Edict of Nantes granting limited religious tolerance

Philip II

Spanish monarch who centralized authority, defended Catholicism, and expanded Spain’s global empire

William of Orange

Leader of the Dutch Revolt who resisted Spanish rule and helped establish Dutch independence

Montaigne

French writer who developed the essay form and expressed skepticism about absolute knowledge

Rubens

Baroque artist known for dramatic movement, rich color, and emotional intensity supporting Catholic ideals

Richelieu

Chief minister of France who strengthened royal power, weakened nobles, and centralized the state

Versailles

Lavish palace built by Louis XIV symbolizing absolute monarchy and control over the nobility

Colbert

Finance minister under Louis XIV who implemented mercantilist policies to strengthen the economy

Frederick William

Prussian ruler who established a strong military state and centralized authority

Frederick the Great

Prussian king who exemplified enlightened absolutism through reforms while maintaining strict control

Peter the Great

Russian tsar who westernized Russia by reforming government, military, and society

James I

Stuart king who supported divine right monarchy and clashed with Parliament

Charles I

English king whose conflicts with Parliament led to the English Civil War and his execution

Oliver Cromwell

Puritan leader who ruled England as Lord Protector after the monarchy was overthrown

Charles II

Restored English monarch who returned after Cromwell’s rule and sought stability

John Locke

Enlightenment philosopher who argued for natural rights, consent of the governed, and the right to revolt

Thomas Hobbes

Philosopher who believed in a strong absolute government to prevent societal chaos

Copernicus

Scientist who proposed the heliocentric model placing the sun at the center of the universe

Kepler

Astronomer who formulated laws of planetary motion demonstrating elliptical orbits

Galileo

Scientist who used telescopic observations to support heliocentrism and challenged Church doctrine

Newton

Scientist who developed laws of motion and universal gravitation explaining physical laws of the universe

Francis Bacon

Philosopher who promoted empiricism and the scientific method based on observation and experimentation

Descartes

Rationalist philosopher who emphasized reason and deductive thinking

Diderot

Editor of the Encyclopedia which compiled Enlightenment knowledge and challenged traditional authority

Voltaire

Philosopher who criticized religious intolerance and advocated freedom of speech and reason

Rousseau

Philosopher who argued that society corrupts natural human goodness and supported popular sovereignty

Adam Smith

Economist who advocated free-market capitalism and the invisible hand in Wealth of Nations

Maria Theresa

Austrian ruler who reformed government and strengthened state authority

Joseph II

Enlightened ruler who attempted sweeping reforms including abolishing serfdom and promoting tolerance

Catherine the Great

Russian empress who expanded territory and embraced selective Enlightenment ideas

Three Estates

Social hierarchy in pre-revolutionary France dividing society into clergy, nobility, and commoners

Bourgeoisie

Middle class that gained economic power but lacked political influence before the French Revolution

Sieyes

Clergyman who argued the Third Estate represented the nation and deserved political power

Lafayette

French noble who supported revolutionary ideals and helped draft the Declaration of the Rights of Man

Robespierre

Radical Jacobin leader who directed the Reign of Terror to protect the revolution

Mary Wollstonecraft

Advocate for women's rights who argued for education equality

Olympe de Gouges

Activist who wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Woman challenging gender inequality

Jacobins

Radical revolutionary group advocating for democracy and equality

Girondists

Moderate revolutionaries who opposed extreme measures

Sans-culottes

Working-class radicals who pushed for greater economic and political equality

Directory

Weak governing body in France that struggled with corruption and instability

Napoleon

Military leader who rose to power and established an authoritarian regime while spreading revolutionary ideas

Metternich

Austrian statesman who led the Congress of Vienna and promoted conservative order

Concert of Europe

System of alliances aimed at maintaining balance of power and preventing revolution

Mazzini

Italian nationalist who promoted democratic unification

Cavour

Political leader who unified northern Italy through diplomacy and alliances

Garibaldi

Revolutionary who led the unification of southern Italy

Bismarck

Prussian leader who unified Germany through strategic wars and diplomacy

Karl Marx

Philosopher who developed communism and critiqued capitalism in The Communist Manifesto

Zollverein

Economic union that promoted trade and unity among German states

Alexander II

Russian tsar who emancipated the serfs and attempted modernization reforms

Dreyfus Affair

French political scandal revealing deep anti-Semitism and divisions in society

Triple Entente

Alliance between Britain, France, and Russia before World War I

Central Powers

Alliance led by Germany and Austria-Hungary during World War I

Schlieffen Plan

German military strategy to quickly defeat France before turning to Russia

Franz Ferdinand

Archduke whose assassination triggered World War I

Lenin

Leader of the Bolsheviks who led the Russian Revolution and established a communist state

Bolsheviks

Revolutionary communist faction that seized power in Russia

Stalin

Totalitarian leader who industrialized the Soviet Union and used repression to maintain control

Hitler

Nazi dictator who led Germany and initiated World War II

Mussolini

Fascist leader who ruled Italy and emphasized authoritarian nationalism

Truman Doctrine

US policy aimed at containing the spread of communism globally

Marshall Plan

Economic aid program to rebuild Western Europe after World War II

NATO

Military alliance formed to counter Soviet influence

Gorbachev

Soviet leader who introduced reforms that contributed to the end of the Cold War

Yeltsin

Leader who oversaw the transition from the Soviet Union to modern Russia

Berlin Wall Fall

Event symbolizing the collapse of communist control in Eastern Europe

Renaissance Art

Art emphasizing realism, perspective, and human-centered themes

Baroque Art

Art characterized by dramatic intensity, movement, and emotional appeal