apwhm unit 4

Mercantilism

An economic system dominant in Europe during the time period of 1450-1750, where wealth was measured in gold and states sought to establish trading posts to increase their wealth.

Trading-post empire

A type of empire building where a state claims small amounts of land at strategic locations to control trade and establish a monopoly over certain goods.

Bartholomew Diaz

A Portuguese explorer who sailed around the southern tip of Africa in 1488, opening up a sea route to the Indian Ocean.

Vasco de Gama

A Portuguese explorer who sailed around the southern tip of Africa and reached India in 1498, claiming territory for Portugal's empire.

Ferdinand Magellan

A Spanish explorer who was the first to circumnavigate the globe by sailing west and then south around the tip of South America. Explored South America to Philippines

Christopher Columbus

An Italian explorer sponsored by Spain who sought a westward route to Asia and discovered the Americas, leading to the colonization and exploitation of the Aztec and Inca Empires.

John Cabot

An English explorer sponsored by England who aimed to find a northwest passage to Asia but instead claimed land in North America for England.

Jamestown

The first English colony established in 1607 in the Chesapeake Bay area of North America.

Maritime

Related to the sea.

Land-based empires

Empires that grew and maintained their power through control of land territories.

Gunpowder

A significant means by which land-based empires grew, especially in Afro-Eurasia.

Silk Road

An ancient network of trade routes that connected the East and West, facilitating the exchange of goods and ideas.

Indian Ocean trade routes

A major trade route connecting various regions around the Indian Ocean, including Africa, the Middle East, and Asia.

Ports

Coastal locations where ships can dock and load/unload cargo.

Astrolabe

An instrument used by sailors to determine their latitude (distance north or south of the equator).

Magnetic compass

A navigational tool that uses the Earth's magnetic field to determine direction.

Lateen sail

A triangular sail that allowed ships to catch wind from multiple directions, enabling them to sail further into the ocean.

Dutch

People from the Netherlands.

Caravel

A type of ship developed by the Portuguese that was smaller, faster, and highly navigable along coastlines and rivers.

Fluyt

A type of ship developed by the Dutch exclusively for trade, with large cargo bays and the ability to sail with smaller crews.

Competitive advantage

A set of unique qualities or resources that allows a person or group to outperform others in a particular area.

Explorations Financed by Portugal

1. Prince Henry the Navigator

2. Vasco da Gama: explored eastern Africa, India

Explorations Financed by Spain

Christopher Columbus: explored Americas

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

agreement between Spain and Portugal to split colonized land between them

Explorer Amerigo Vespucci (1500)

South America

Ponce de Leon (1513)

Explored Florida

Vasco de Balboa (1513)

Explored Central America

Giovanni da Verrazzano (1524)

Explored North America

Sir Francis Drake (1578)

circumnavigated the globe

Henry Hudson (1609)

Explored the Hudson River

Products that aided new explorations

1. Sternpost Rudder

2. Lateen Sails

3. Astrolabe

4. Magnetic Compass

5. Three-Masted Caravels

Sternpost Rudder

invented in China - better control of ships

Lateen Sails

invented in Roman Empire - allowed directional control of ships

Astrolabe

navigation device that measured distance between sun and stars on horizon to determine latitude

Magnetic Compass

developed in China - determine direction

Three-Masted Caravels

large ships fit for longer journeys

Hernando Cortes

landed on coast of Mexico in 1519 - sought to exploit the Aztec Empire of their gold and spices

• Became very hungry for wealth and quickly seized Montezuma and began a siege of Tenochtitlan

Disease in the Aztec Empire

Spanish brought smallpox which reduced their population from 20 million in 1520 to 2 million in 1580

• Spanish were able to take control in 1525

Francisco Pizarro

• took over Inca Empire in 1531 partially due to spreading disease to them

  • Pizarro was in control of the Inca Empire by 1535

Encomienda System

Spanish implemented a hierarchical colonial society as they took over the New World:

1. Peninsulares: Spanish officials governing the colonies

2. Creoles: Spanish born in colonies to Spanish parents - barred from high positions but were educated and wealthy

3. Mestizos: those with European/Native American ancestry

4. Mulattos: those with European/African ancestry

5. Native Americans

Viceroys

governors of each of 5 regions of New Spain - established the encomienda system

Start of the African Slave Trade

• Europe exploited a system of slavery already existing in Africa - prisoners were supposed to serve their captors before being released

• Europeans traded for their surplus of enslaved people, but didn’t understand that they were supposed to be released

Middle Passage

Ocean passage from Africa to Americas that was brutal with treacherous waters

Where did Europe take the African slaves?

Around 13 million Africans were taken - 60% to South America, 35% to Caribbean, 5% to North America, around 20% of people on each trip perished

Columbian Exchange

• Transatlantic transfer of animals, plants, diseases, people, technology, ideas among Europe, Americas, and Africa

• Never before had so much moved across the ocean

Key Products of the Columbian Exchange

1. sugar (plantations appeared all over Spanish colonies),

2. silver (mining also in Spanish colonies)

• both used significant forced labour

Age or Exploration

trading, empire building, conquest - due to financing schemes

Joint-stock Company

pool resources of merchants to distribute costs and reducing dangers of individual investors

• Led to huge profits and modern-day concept of stock markets

Mercantilism

theory that creating a favourable balance of import and export was best - of course, this led to Europe’s intense colonialism to match their import demand

What demographic issues pushed Europeans into exploration and trade?

the search for food, work, land, religious tolerance, and adventure

What caused the Omani-European Rivalry?

caused by Europeans forcibly establishing trading posts, which displaced existing traders in the Indian Ocean region.

What was the effect of the Omani-European Rivalry?

influenced events such as Columbus' search for a new route to India, impacting global exploration and trade.

How did the Portuguese ensure control of trade?

ensured control of trade through the establishment of forts and a monopoly on spices, requiring permits from them to engage in trade in the Indian Ocean.

What led to weakness in Portuguese global trade?

lack of sufficient workers and ships to protect their empire, government corruption, and rivalry and expansion by the Dutch and English.

What is Ferdinand Magellan’s exploration famous for

famous for one of his ships becoming the first to circumnavigate the world.

What did Spain do in the Philippines?

annexed the Philippines in 1521 when Magellan's fleet arrived, established Manila as a commercial center, and introduced Christianity, attracting merchants and converting many Filipinos

Why did the Aztec and Inca civilizations make exploration, conquest, and settlement profitable?

These empires had abundant reserves of gold and silver, which were highly valued by European explorers.

How was France’s settlement technique different from that of the English or Spanish?

focused on fur trading with Native Americans rather than permanent settlement, resulting in better relations with Native Americans and slower population growth in their colonies.

Who was John Cabot, and what was his significance?

was an English explorer sent in 1497 to search for a northwest passage to Asia. He claimed lands in North America and contributed to English exploration and competition in the Americas.

What is the significance of Jamestown?

founded in 1607, was England's first successful colony in the United States, marking the beginning of English colonization in North America.

Who was Henry Hudson, and what were Dutch settlements in North America known for?

He explored the East Coast of North America and the Dutch claimed the Hudson River Valley, establishing New Amsterdam (now NYC). Dutch settlements focused on fur trading and exchange of goods with North American colonies.

According to Aztec belief, how were their ancestors guided to their home location in the Valley of Mexico?

believed their ancestors were guided by the god Huitzilopochtli, who instructed them to find an eagle perched on a cactus on an island in Lake Texcoco, where they built their city, Tenochtitlan.

How did the Aztec Empire come into existence?

formed when the city-states of Texcoco and Tepenec, dominant in central Mexico, allied with Tenochtitlan and Tlacopan in 1428, creating the Triple Alliance and establishing the Aztec Empire.

What city became the most powerful in the Aztec Empire, and what title was given to its ruler?

Tenochtitlan, built on an island in Lake Texcoco, became the most powerful city in the Aztec Empire, and its ruler was referred to as the supreme ruler, or the huey tlatoque ('high king').

What agricultural technique did the Aztecs use in Mesoamerica, and how did it add to their living and agricultural space?

used chinampas, small, rectangular areas of fertile land on shallow lake beds, to grow crops. Chinampas added both living and agricultural space, allowing for crop cultivation and

What significant achievements did the Aztec military attain during their reign?

The Aztec armies continued their conquests and were the first to reach the shores of the Mexican Gulf, expanding their empire through military conquest

What was the structure of the Aztec government, particularly with regard to rulers and land management?

had a hierarchical structure with a "Great Speaker" (Huey Tlatcani) as the ruler of Tenochtitlan and organized land tax, rotational labor, public works corvée, and market tax.

How did the Aztecs govern both conquered and non-conquered states in their empire?

Conquered states were allowed to rule themselves in exchange for loyalty and taxes, while non-conquered states received military support in return for tribute (gifts).

Where was the Inca Empire located, and what was significant about its size and dominance?

was in western South America, modern-day Peru, and it was the largest empire in the Americas and the world at its height.

How did the Inca gain control of new territories and maintain their power?

used their military to acquire new territories and maintained power through large building projects, a tax system, and an efficient administration system

Describe the hierarchical structure of the Inca Empire and how administration was carried out.

structured with an emperor at the top and included over 80 provinces, each with curacas responsible for managing resources and maintaining community well-being

What was the purpose and extent of the Inca road system, and who had access to it?

covered over 25,000 miles and was used for official purposes, including emperor's travel, goods transportation, and message delivery. Ordinary people needed official permission to use it.

How did the Inca government collect labor from its subjects, and what was this system called?

used the mita system, requiring adult men to work for the state for a specific number of days per year, assigned to tasks based on their skills.

How did the Inca keep records without a writing system, and what was the tool they used?

used the quipu, a system of colored strings, to record information about births, herds, crops, and other important data

What were some of the Inca religious beliefs and rituals, and what was the significance of huacas?

practiced rituals to appease gods associated with natural forces. They gave offerings to the gods and considered natural features like mountains and springs as sacred places called huacas.

How did the Inca worship the sun, and what was the relationship between the Inca emperor and the sun?

worshiped the sun as the giver of life and believed the emperor was the sun's son, establishing a special connection between the ruler and the sun.

Who were some of the deities the Inca worshiped apart from the sun, and what roles did they play?

worshiped Wiracocha as the god of creation, as well as local deities protecting various aspects of life, such as herds and crops

How did the Inca rulers ensure communication throughout their vast empire, and what was their official language?

used an extensive road system for official communication and made Quechua their official language, while local groups could use their own languages for daily activities.

What was the Inca's "vertical economy," and what advantages did it offer in the Andean climate?

involved growing different crops at varying altitudes, providing access to diverse foods and protecting against unpredictable weather conditions in the andes

Describe the hierarchy of the Inca Empire's provinces and the role of curacas.

had curacas responsible for managing resources, resolving disputes, and maintaining community well-being, often with positions passed down through heredity.

What did Hernando Cortés describe in his Second Letter to Charles V in 1520?

He mentioned multiple squares for markets and trading, with one square having over 60,000 people engaged in buying and selling various goods, including food, gold and silver jewels, lead, brass, copper, zinc, bones, shells, and feathers. Each type of merchandise had its designated street or quarter for exclusive sales, maintaining order. Cortés also noted an audience house in the great square where magistrates resolved market-related controversies, and individuals monitored sales and measures used in selling.

describe farming in the Incan Empire

once an Incan ruler conquered a territory and established his government, he ordered the extension of farmland dedicated to growing corn. To achieve this, the ruler instructed the construction of irrigation channels. The engineers ensured water supply for crops, especially since only certain sections of the land were suitable for corn cultivation. The goal was to enhance fertility in these areas as much as possible.

How did the Inca address the challenge of limited flat areas for farming in the Andes Mountains?

implemented terrace farming. This involved digging terraces on mountain sides to cultivate crops. The Incan Empire covered 2,471,053 acres of farmland, including both terraced and flat farms. Notably, the stones supporting terrace farming absorbed heat during the day and released it to the plants at night. This practice also had the benefit of preventing erosion. Garciasco de la Vega, a son of an Incan princess and a Spanish explorer, provided this description of terrace farming in the Incan Empire.

human sacrifice in the Aztec Empire

practiced human sacrifice, a fact supported by archaeological finds. Human sacrifice in the Aztec culture was deeply rooted, linked to beliefs such as the sacredness of human blood and the idea that humans owed a debt to the gods, which had to be repaid through blood and human lives.

how did the Incas manage resources and agriculture in their vast kingdom?

by having numerous storehouses in each province filled with supplies. During times of war, armies could draw from these storehouses without touching the resources of their allies. The storehouses were replenished with tributes or taxes paid to the Inca. In years of scarcity, provinces borrowed supplies, repaying in years of abundance. Laziness was not tolerated, and everyone had to work. Lords, on specific days, personally engaged in agricultural activities such as plowing and c

inca child sacrifices

The sacrificial ritual, known as capacocha, involved selecting children for their beauty and possibly nobility. These chosen children were well-fed, cared for, and honored before their ritual deaths. Archaeologists and cultural historians believe that, according to Inca beliefs, such sacrificial victims would serve as guardians over their villages from the mountain heights, joining the ancestors and being honored in death.

What is a codex, and what happened to many of them when the Spanish arrived in the Americas

an ancient book, and when the Spanish arrived in the Americas, there were codices from the Maya and Aztec civilizations. destroyed by the Spanish conquerors who perceived them as having no value and considered them to be anti-Christian. Despite this destruction, some managed to survive. These ancient books are written in pictographs, which are images representing objects or ideas.

How did Aztec and Inca writers respond to the Spanish arrival, and what is an example of such documentation?

After the Spanish arrival, Aztec and Inca writers documented their civilizations and experiences under Spanish rule to preserve their heritage and address Spanish cruelty. One notable example is Guáman Poma, an Inca born in 1535, just after the Spanish conquered the Incan empire. Guáman Poma wrote a 1,189-page book titled "El Primer Nueva Corónica y Buen Gobierno" This book was intended for King Philip II of Spain and aimed to explain the history of Andean civilization while illustrating the negative impact of Spanish colonization on the Inca way of life.

Why were Europeans interested in Asia?

Europeans were interested in Asia because they heard stories of the riches and goods in Asia through the Crusades and books by travelers.

2. How could this european interest in Asia have led to or caused exploration?

This interest in Asia led to exploration because it would have fueled the desire for wealth.

2. In the Middle Ages, why was the relationship with the Byzantine Empire important for Western Europeans?

The relationship with the Byzantine Empire was significant for western Europeans because it gave them access to goods from Asia, Constantinople was a major trade hub and was valuable for economic growth.

3. What effect did the expansion of the Ottoman Empire have on trade between Western Europe and Asia?

The expansion of the Ottoman Empire would have disrupted trade between Western Europe and Asia.

4. Why were spices so expensive in Western Europe?

Spices were expensive in Western Europe because merchants, after purchasing the spices would raise the price of them to profit. The spices were cheapest in where they were sourced from and increased in price the further away they were.

5. How could the expensive cost of spices have motivated Europeans to explore on the seas?

The high cost of the spices could have motivated the Europeans to find an alternate route to purchase the spices for a lower cost.

1. Since the 700s, what was the relationship between Muslims and Christians on the Iberian Peninsula?

The relationship between Muslims and Christians on the Iberian Peninsula was hostile since the 700’s.

2. How did this relationship impact the desire of Christian nations in the Iberian Peninsula to spread Christianity?

The Christians viewed their religion as the one true faith, which sets them in conflict with other religions. They believed they had to spread their religion to save people.

3. How could the religious zeal to spread Christianity have led to or caused European exploration?

The religious zeal to spread Christianity led to exploration because it gave them a reason to find other lands in which they could spread their religion. It would also have garnered support from religious monarchs to fund explorations.

1. What did mercantilist governments believe would make a country the strongest?

Mercantilist governments believed that a country was strongest if it had a lot of gold and silver.

2. Why would a mercantilist government be interested in other areas of the world?

A mercantilist government would be interested in other areas of the world because they could find new sources of gold/silver.

3. How did this belief in mercantilism lead to or cause European exploration?

This belief led to European exploration because they wanted to find new sources of gold/silver.