deeper functionalism

definition of Functionalism

Functionalism regards society as a stable, harmonious integrated social system, with social order and cohesion maintained by a fundamental value consensus. Eg. a national curriculum inculcates a common history that encourages prosocial behaviour.

Durkheim views on society and value consensus

• Durkheim was pessimistic about society: People are essentially selfish and society would fall into chaos and disorder unless there is value consensus.

• places major emphasis on institutions like the family & education system to use the socialisation process to create a collective conscience.

• If we treat our bodies badly, we feel bad and become unwell. He uses this analogy to explain that healthy societies require upkeep just like healthy bodies

Durkheim's Organic Analogy overview

Functionalists view society much like a human body, with all parts having a function and working harmoniously together. All social processes have a function, just as all parts of the body have a specific function. Without these we experience anomie (social alienation). Parsons (1951) outlined 4 functional prerequisites - basic needs that must be met if society is to survive.

Functional prerequisites - Parson's GAIL Theory overview

Parson’s suggests that to survive in a healthy state all societies have to satisfy 4 functional prerequisites (requirements). It represents four basic functions that all social systems must perform in in order to sustain/survive.

4 Functional prerequisites GAIL:

Goal attainment

Adaptation

Integration

Latency

Adaptation (Economic)

This applies the principles of natural selection to society. Organisms that aren't flexible and quick to react will die out, and functionalists believe this applies to societies too.

• Resources - we should exploit the environment for our needs and be willing to accept change.

  • Example arguments: Industrialisation destroyed a lot of green spaces but produced the modern world. Solar panels and wind turbines may spoil the countryside but help the natural environment.

• Distribution of resources - different people/sectors need help at different times and in their own ways.

  • Example arguments: The rich should pay more to fund the poor because they need each other, and historically the rich have had surplus funds while the poor have had surplus time. State pensions are paid after 35 years of tax contributions.

Goal Attainment (Political)

Successful people, organisations and countries focus on getting one thing right before moving on to the next project. We need everyone to be focused on the same big goals or we risk doing everything badly and arguing about priorities.

• We have a finite amount of tax money, and government needs to spend it on the things that align with our needs.

  • Eg. the austerity years saw government decide to cut the budget deficit by slashing public service spending. This was seen as a national goal after the financial crisis of 2008 and most people agreed. Arguments came when many felt the policy carried on for years and there was a failure of adaptation.

• Politicians have a limited amount of “political capital” and need to prioritise goals carefully. Failure here means future goals won’t be achieved.

  • Eg. putting up taxes - Austerity was accepted as costly but necessary by most people as the debt went down and inflation was low. Government then borrowed a lot of money during the covid period and are now being widely criticised for austerity. Social contract is broken.

Integration (Legal/Social)

Societies where people get along and communicate in good faith are the most successful. It’s important to discuss our ideas and beliefs freely to establish mutual respect, tolerance and understanding. Failure to do this leads to sectarianism.

• Secondary socialisation is the main vehicle for integration, for functionalists. Schools teach PSHE (active) and facilitate interactions between people from throughout the community (passive).

• People usually need a sense of belonging and identity to feel fulfilled, motivated and successful. Functionalists believe it benefits everyone to accept some things we don’t like in order that everyone can be included.

  • Traditionally, promoting integration has been seen as a function of religious institutions, and later schools (due to secularisation). The “British values curriculum” from the coalition government is an example

Latency (Moral)

Parsons believed in individual freedom and “small government”. Once we’ve been shown the value consensus, been offered solidarity, etc. we need to be left alone by government. We should punish those who make mistakes, but generally speaking a functional society mostly runs itself because members are aligned.

Functionalists believe that we sacrifice self-interest to achieve the value consensus, and claim that the benefits we can enjoy as a result are worth the cost eg.:

• Freedom of speech

• Freedom of religious belief

• Freedom of association

• Universal suffrage (voting rights)

• High-trust communities (help each other and reduce taxation)

Merton’s Criticism - Dysfunction (Manifest vs. Latent)

Merton suggested there were manifest functions and latent functions of an institution. Some can be “dysfunctional”.

• Manifest Function: The recognised and intended outcome of the action of an individual or institution. Eg. a school has the manifest function of providing education.

  • Dysfunction: schools may teach incorrect content

• Latent Function: The unrecognised or unintended outcome of the action of an individual or institution. Eg. school has the latent function of helping those who work/study there to find friends/partners.

  • Dysfunction:bullying in school/work can ruin our relationships

Advantages of Functionalism

Research support (de Soysa & Noel, 2020) - there is an “bell curve” relationship between cultural diversity and social outcomes (eg. hate crime, violence, homicide). * This suggests too little or too much similarity can lead to “social friction”. Having a common “normative” set of values (integration) while accepting productive differences latency) seems to work best.

• Ethical argument - functionalists stress the need to involve everyone and reach consensus in society. Some argue this is the foundation of modern human rights and equality. Thomas Sowell (2007) champions consideration of “trade-offs” to achieve progress.

Disadvantages of Functionalism

Ignoring the margins - conflict theorists often criticise the consensus-building aim of functionalism for its lack of focus on people society leaves behind (eg. working class)

• Cultural homogenization - many postmodernists criticise the functionalist desire to promote consensus because we might lost individuality and minority culture in the process.

• Overly optimistic - some new right and feminist writers criticise what they see as a naive belief that everyone can get along. Eg:

  • Murray highlights the underclass - some people won't want to contribute.

  • Duncombe & Marsden stress “triple shift” inequality - normative doesn't mean good