Psych final

what are the three forms of influence?

conformity, compliance, and obedience

what are the 2 reasons for nonconscious forms of imitation

1. serves as a social function of behavior

2. mimicry is a dynamic process

conformity

the tendency to change our perceptions, opinions, or behavior in ways that are consistent w social or group norms

Sherif’s light point experiment

when physical reality is ambiguous and we are uncertain of our own judgements,as in the autokinetic situation, others can serve as a valuable source of information

What was Asch’s experiment; how was it different?

different kind of conformity where ppl thought they were crazy but still went along. it was with the different line lengths

What is informational influence?

influence that produces conformity when a person believes other are correct in their judgements

What is normative influence?

influence that produces conformity when a person fears the negative social consequences of appearing deviant

Private conformity?

the change of believes that occurs when a person privately accepts the position taken by others

Public conformity?

a superficial change in overt behavior without a corresponding change of opinion that is produced by real or imagined group pressure

When do ppl tend to follow? What four factors create this feeling? SFPG

ppl tend to follow when the social pressure is intense and when they’re insecure about how to behave. the four factors are:

1. size of the group

2. focus on norms

3. presence of an ally

4. gender

What is minority influence?

the process by which dissenters produce change within a group

What was mosovici’s theory, and what did hollander suggest as as an alternative?

Moscovici’s theory was: majorities are powerful by virtue of their sheer numbers, whereas nonconformists derive power from the style of their behavior. hollander suggested that to influence a majority, ppl should first conform in order to establish their credentials as competent insiders.

What are idiosyncrasy credits?

interpersonal ‘credits’ that a person earns by following group norms.

What kind of conformity do minorities vs majorities elicit? Why?

majorities elicit public conformity and minorities elicit private conformity. because ppl feel freer to stray from the mainstream on matters of opinion vs facts

What is individualism vs collectivism?

individualism is a cultural orientation in which independence, autonomy, and self reliance take priority over group allegiances. in collectivism, interdependence, cooperation, and social harmony take priority over personal goals.

What 3 factors determine whether a culture becomes individualistic or collectivistic?

complexity of society: more groups to identify w, greater focus on personal goals

affluence: more financial independence, more personal goals

heterogeneity: more homogenous, more collectivist

What is compliance?

change in behavior that are elicited by direct requests

What is the norm of reciprocity?

we treat others as they have treated us. but compliance/feeling to reciprocate is relatively short-lived

What are creditors?

individuals who use reciprocity to elicit compliance

What is the foot in the door technique?

a two step compliance technique in which an influencer sets the stage for the real request by first getting a person to comply with a much smaller request.

What is the lowballing technique?

a 2 step compliance technique in which an influencer secures agreement w a request but then increases the size of that request by revealing hidden costs

 What is the door-in-the face technique?

a 2 step compliance technique in which an influencer prefaces the real request with one that is so large that it is rejected

What is the that’s not all technique?

the influencer begins with an inflated request, then decreases its apparent size by offering a discount or bonus

What 3 factors changed results of milgram’s experiment?

authority figure, proximity of the victim, and the experimental procedure

What does destructive obedience require (at least in the Milgram setting)?

the physical presence of a prestigious authority figure

What were the 4 factors of his experiment? NGNF

no personal responsibility, gradual escalation, novel situation, fast pace

What is social impact theory? Explain the 3 factors SIN

the theory that social influence depends on the strength, immediacy, and number of source persons relative to target persons

strength: determined by status or rls to target

immediacy: proximity in time and space

number: as sources increase, so do their influence

When is resistance to social pressure more likely to occur?

when social impact is divided among many strong and distant targets

What are two true things about people who have a network of close social ties?

they have higher SE and are physically healthier

What is need for affiliation? What states of mind inspire it? SLL

the desire to establish and maintain many rewarding interpersonal relationships. stress, loneliness, and a lack of pwr are all states of mind that inspire it.

What is loneliness?

a feeling of deprivation about social relations

What are the three dimensions of loneliness?

intimate: spouse, s/o

relational: friendships

collective: remote rls /social identities we derive from groups

What are the 2 perspectives on attraction?

1. ppl are attracted to those with whom they can have a rls that is rewarding

2. ppl exhibit patterns of attraction that favor the conception/birth/survival of their offspring

What is mere exposure effect?

the more often ppl are exposed to a stimulus, the more positively they eval. that stimulus. the single best predictor of whether 2 ppl will get tg is physical proximity

What is the what-is-beautiful-is-good stereotype?

belief that physically attractive individuals also possess desirable personality characteristics

What 4 types of similarity are important to attraction? DAPS

demographic, attitudes, physical matching, subjective experiences

What is the matching hypothesis?

proposition that ppl are attracted to others who are similar in physical attractiveness

What is reciprocity?

a mutual exchange between what we give and receive - for ex, liking those who like us

What is the hard-to-get effect?

the tendency to prefer ppl who are highly selective in their social choices over those who are more readily available

What is an intimate relationship?

a close relationship between 2 adults involving emotional attachment, fulfillment of psychological needs, or interdependence

What is Bernard Murstein's stimulus-value-role theory? ( 3 steps)

a relationship progresses thru 3 stages:

1. the stimulus stage: attraction sparked by external attributes

2. value stage: attachment based on similarity of values and beliefs

3. role stage: commitment is based on the enactment of such roles as husband and wife

What is social exchange theory?

a perspective that views ppl as motivated to maximize benefits and minimize costs in their relationships w others

What is comparison level?

average expected outcome in relationships. a person with high CL expects their relationships to be rewarding

What is comparison level for alternatives?

ppl’s expectations about what they would receive in an alternative situation

What is equity theory?

ppl are most satisfied with a rls when the ratio between benefits and contributions is similar for both partners

What is the equilibrium model of relationship maintenance?

states that ppl are motivated to preserve important rls, that declines in satisfaction and commitment motivate threat-mitigating tactics, and that these tactics serve to restore levels of satisfaction and commitment

What is an exchange vs communal relationship?

exchange is when participants expect and desire strict reciprocity in their interactions. communal is when participants expect and desire mutual responsiveness to each other’s needs.

Triangular theory of love? (3 components)

love has 3 basic components- intimacy, passion, and commitment- that can be combined to produce eight subtypes

intimacy: emotional component, involving liking and feelings of closeness

passion: motivational component, involving attraction/romance

commitment: cognitive component

Two ingredients that fuel passionate love?

1. a heightened state of physiological arousal

2. the belief that this arousal was triggered by the beloved person

Excitation transfer?

the process whereby arousal caused by one stimulus is added to arousal from a second stimulus and the combined arousal is attributed to the second stimulus

Self-disclosure?

revelations about the self that a person makes to others

3 patterns of self-disclosure in social relationships?

1. social interaction grows from a narrow, shallow sliver to a wider, more penetrating wedge

2. patterns of self disclosure change according to the state of a relationship

3. individuals differ in the tendency to share private, intimate thoughts w others. women more than men

Negative affect reciprocity?

a tit-for-tat exchange of expressions of negative feelings

2 basic approaches to reducing the negative effects of conflict?

1. increase rewarding behavior in other aspects of the rls

2. try to understand the other’s point of view

Relationship-enhancing attributions vs distress-maintaining attributions?

REA are what happy couples make- they see the partner’s undesirable behavior as caused by factors that are situational, temporary, and limited in scope

DEA are what unhappy couples make

companionate love?

a secure, trusting, stable partnership

What is aggression?

behavior intended to harm another individual

What is anger?

strong feelings of displeasure in response to a perceived injury

What is hostility?

a negative, antagonistic attitude toward another person/group

What is proactive/instrumental aggression?

aggressive behavior whereby harm is inflicted as a means to a desired end

What is reactive aggression?

aggressive behavior where the means and end coincide; harm is inflicted for its own sake

Which of the genders is more violent? Aggressive?

males are more violent than females but both are equally aggressive. but men are more physically aggressive.

What are the strong predictors of aggression?

being low on agreeableness, low on openness, and high on neuroticism

What is the dark triad?

a set of three traits that are associated with higher levels of aggressiveness: machiavellianism, psycopathy, and narcisisism

What is the evolutionary perspective on aggression?

males are competitive with each other because females select hi-status males for mating. women aggress because repro success is dependent on the survival of one’s offspring.

What are the biological factors of aggression? GTLL

Genes, testosterone, low serotonin, low executive functioning

What is executive functioning?

the cognitive abilities and processes that allow humans to plan or inhibit their actions

What is positive reinforcement vs negative reinforcement?

pos: when aggression produces desired outcomes

neg: when aggression prevents undesirable outcomes

What are the 3 conditions for which punishment is likely to decrease aggression?

1. immediately follows the aggressive behavior

2. is strong enough to deter the aggressor

3. is consistently applied and perceived as fair and legitimate by the aggressor

What is corporal punishment?

physical force (such as spanking or hitting) intended to cause a child pain- but not injury- for the purpose of controlling or correcting the child’s behavior. it backfires in the long run.

What is social learning theory? What was the experiment used to prove it?

behavior is learned through the observation of others asw as through the direct experience of rewards and punishments. researched w a bobo doll

What is the cycle of violence?

the transmission of domestic violence across generations

Culture of honor?

a culture that emphasizes honor and social status, particularly for males, and the role of aggression in protecting that honor

Frustration-aggression hypothesis?

the idea that (1) frustration always elicits the motive to aggress and that (2) all aggression is caused by frustration

Displacement?

aggressing against a substitute target because aggressive acts against the source of the frustration are inhibited by fear or lack of access

Catharsis?

a reduction of the motive to aggress that is said to result from any imagined, observed, or actual acts of aggression. this is a MYTH

4 kinds of unpleasant experiences that create negative affect?

frustration, heat, provocation, social rejection

Weapons effect? Study used to test it?

the tendency that the likelihood of aggression will increase by the mere presence of weapons. ex study: the greater the incr. in testosterone in response to a gun in the room, the more hot saue the students added to the other person’s drink

Hostile attribution bias?

the tendency to perceive hostile intent in others

rumination?

in the context of aggression, rumination involves repeatedly thinking about and reliving an anger-inducing event, focusing on angry thoughts and feelings, and perhaps even planning or imagining revenge. contributes to direct/displaced aggression, arousal & raised BP, negative affect, aggressive cognitions, & reduces self-ctrl abilities

What are the 2 steps between anger-inducing provocation and aggression?

angry rumination & reduced self control

Alcohol myopia?

alcohol narrows ppl’s focus of attention. This can make aggression more likely to occur

Eli Finkel’s I³ theory?

emphasizes the role of self ctrl in aggression.

1. instigation: social factors that often trigger aggressive impulses, such as provocation or social rejection

2. impellance: personality & situational factors that promote the urge to aggress when encountering instigating factors, such as angry rumination or trait aggressiveness

3. inhibition: the various factors of self-ctrl previously described

What is the general aggression model?

1. various aversive experiences, situational cues, and indiv differences can create neg affect, high arousal, and/or aggressive thoughts, each of which contributes to aggressive behavior

2. whether aggressive behavior is likely to result depends in part on the outcome of higher-order thinking, which can either inhibit or facilitate aggression

Confluence model of sexual aggression?

for the subset of indivs who alr score high on multiple known risk factors of sexual aggression, consuming porn adds fuel to the fire.

Aggression replacement training? ISA

improved moral reasoning, social competence training, & aggression ctrl

4 types of interventions for reducing reactive aggression: SCCM

self control, cognitive reappraisal, cognitive control, & mindfulness

Multisystemic therapy?

one of the most successful treatment programs for violent juvenile delinquents. Addresses individuals’ problems at several diff levels, including the needs of the adolescents & the many contexts in which they are embedded

Unique benefits for non monogamous rls?

diversified need fulfillment, activity variety (non sexual), personal growth & development

What are prosocial behaviors?

actions intended to benefit others

Kin selection?

preferential helping of genetic relatives, which results in the greater likelihood that genes held in common will survive

Who are ppl more likely to help in low-risk vs high-risk scenarios

low risk: romantic partners than sibs, equally willing w/ or w/out children

high risk: opposite. genetic relatedness became more important in decisions about helping

Reciprocal altruism?

altruism that involves an individual helping another (despite some immediate risk or cost) and becoming more likely to receive help from other in return.

Empathy? 2 components

understanding or vicariously experiencing another individual’s perspective and feeling sympathy and compassion for that individual. 2 components are cognitive (perspective taking) and emotional (empathic concern).

Do animals show empathy? Give an ex?

Yes, although higher-order cognitive aspects of empathy are specific to humans. Ex: consoling behavior in chimps that reduce the recipient’s arousal.

Do young humans show signs of being affected by other’s distress? Give ex?

yes. adult dropped a marker/other sim task, & 22/24 babies tried to help. worked on chimps to, but not across as many tasks

Explain how the capacity for empathy is part of our biology?

seeing someone experience pos or neg emotion can trigger activation of brain structures associated with the actual experience of that emotion. oxytocin (hormone assoc. w bonding) is implicated in empathy & prosocial behavior. helping can in turn increase oxytocin

Negative state relief model?

the proposition that ppl help others in order to counteract their own feelings of sadness

Courageous resistance?

thoughtful helping in the face of potentially enormous costs. when help involves constant and exhausting demands, this can have neg effects on the helper

Egoistic vs Altruistic?

E: motivated by the desire to improve ones’s own welfare

A: motivated by the desire to improve another’s welfare