Unit 2: Cognition

Perception

Process of interpreting the information we obtain through our five senses

• interpreting a stimulus

Sensation

Raw data/information that we recieve from our sensory receptors

• detecting a stimulus

Top-Down Processing

Using prior knowledge/experiences to interpret the information

Proofreader’s Illusion

You overlook all the errors in your essay because you know what you intended to write

Bottom-Up Processing

When the stimuli/experience is complex and not familiar to the individual

• usually takes longer

Schema

Mental framework/cognitive structure built on our past experiences

• guide perception

Perceptual Sets

Mental shortcut your brain uses to quickly interpret what you’re experiencing

• influenced by experiences

Selective Attention

Focusing on a stimuli and tuning out other stimuli

Cocktail Party Event

Ability to focus on a specific conversation/sound in a noisy setting

Inattentional Blindness

Failure to notice stimuli in our visual field due to attention being focused elsewhere

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment

Apparent Movement

Perceiving motion even when nothing is actually moving

Phi Phenomenon

When lights blink on/off in sequence, resulting in perception of moving objects

Induced Movement

When a stationary object appears to move because of the motion of surrounding objects

Autokinetic Effect

When a stationary point of light in a dark environment appears to move

Gestalt Psychology

Helps explain how we organize our perceptual world; focuses on how humans naturally group elements together to form meaningful patterns

Figure and Ground Principle

How our visual system separates what we see into 2 categories

Continuation Principle

Why our eyes naturally follow continuous lines or paths

Closure Principle

Explains how our brain subconsciously fills in missing info when viewing a familiar but incomplete object

Similarity Principle

How we perceive a group of similar objects or patterns as one cohesive unit

When are things perceived as a single group?

Proximity or similarity

Depth Perception

Ability to perceive relative distance of an objecct on one’s visual field

Convergence

When we focus on something close, our eyes move inward; focusing on something further away makes our eyes straighten out

Retinal Disparity

Difference between retinal images in left and right eyes

Monocular Cues

Requires only one eye and helps us perceive depth on flat/2d surfaces

Monocular Cues (RSRITL)

Relative Size, Shading/Contour, Relative Height, Interposition, Texture/Gradient, Linear Perspective

Interposition

When one object blocks another

Shading/Contour

More hazy/less detail = farther away

Motion Parallax

Closer objects move quicker, further objects move slower

Perceptual Constancy

Ability to perceive objects as having consistent shape/size/color/lightness, even when their appearance changes due to varying conditions

Size Constancy

Brain’s tendency to perceive objects as the same size

Lightness Constancy

Ability to perceive blackness/whiteness/grayness of an object as constant despite lighting

Cognition

Forms of knowing and awareness: perceiving, remembering, conceiving, reasoning, judging, imagining, problem solving

Concepts

Mental categories that help us organize and understand the world

Prototype

Most typical/basic example of a concept (mental image/reference point)

Assimilation

When we fit new information into existing schemas (ADD)

Accomodation

Changing schema to incorporate new information (ADD and ALTER)

Executive Functions

Cognitive processes that help individuals generate/organize/plan/carry out goal direct behaviors/critical thinking

Algorithms

Tackling problems step by step

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts based on past experiences

• not always accurate → can lead to errors in judgement

Representative Heuristics

Making judgements based on how much something resembles a steryotype/typical case

Availability Heuristics

Making judgements based on how easily examples come to mind

Mental Set

Cognitive framework that relies on past experiences/successful strategies to solve new problems

Priming

Exposure to one stimulus changes how we respond to a later stimulus

Repetition Priming

Exposed to a specific stimulus that makes it easier to recognize the same stimulus later

Semantic Priming

Influence of one word on the interpretation of another, related word

Framing

How information is presented

Creativity

Creating new original ideas and solutions

Divergent Thinking

Explores many possible solutions and expanding the range of options for solving a problem

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing down possibilities to identify the single best solution

5 Key Components of Creativity

By Robert Sternberg

1. Expertise

2. Intrinsic motivation

3. Venturesome personality

4. Creative environment

5. Imaginative thinking

Functional Fixedness

Limits a person to using an object only in its traditional way

Gambler’s Fallacy

If an event occurs more frequently than normal during a given period, it’ll happen less frequently in the future (vice versa) → poor decision making

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Tendency to continue to pursue an action which you’ve already invested money/time/resources into regardless of future value

Memory

Information that persists over time through various experiences to be stored later

Metacognition

Awareness of your own cognitive processes

Explicit Memory

Info we consciously recall (requires thought and effort)

• episodic (personal experience)

  • semantic memory (knowledge)

Implicit Memory

Info/skills we learn without being fully aware of it

Procedural Memory

A type of implicit memory which helps us recall how to perform tasks

Prospect Memory

Remembering to perform future actions (taking meds, etc.)

Retention Questions

1. Recall

2. Recognize

3. Relearn

Parallel Processing

Handling multiple streams of information simultaneously

Long-Term Potentiation

Strengthens synaptic connections between neurons in the brain through repeated activation

Working Memory (Short-Term) Model

How our primary/working memory processes and temporarily holds info for cognitive tasks

Visuospatial Sketchpad/Inner Eye

Handles visual/spatial info → allows us to visualize objects and their location

Phonological Loop

Verbal/auditory info

• Phonological Store/Inner Ear - holds spoken words/sounds for a short amount of time

• Articulatory Rehearsal Process - helps you repeat/rehease verbal information and keep it active in your working memory

Central Executive

Control center of working memory which manages the other components

• focusing attention, switching between different activities, prioritizing tasks, integrating info

Episodic Buffer

How long/short-term memory integrate together + how different types of information such as sounds and visuals are combined

• temporary storage system (Brings phonological loop/visuospatial sketchpad/long-term memory together)

Multi-Store Model of Memory

Explains how information is processed, stored, and retrieved; focuses on three key systems that information must pass through to be remembered

Multi-Store Model Process

Stimulus → sensory memory (iconic/echoic gathered with little effort) → working memory (if interest is caught) -(encoding)→ long-term memory

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeatedly go over information to prevent forgetting

Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting new information to something you already know (makes it easier to remember)

Levels of Processing Model

Structural Processing, Phonemic Processing, Semantic Processing

Structural Processing

Superficial level/focus on physical appearance

Phonemic Processing

Deeper level/how the information sounds

Semantic Processing

Deepest level/focus on meaning of the information

Encoding

The process and strategies we use to take in information and store it in our long-term memory

Organizational Encoding

Processing information in te

Method of Lokai

Remembering information by associating it with specific locations in a familiar setting (spatial memeory and vivid imagery)

Chunking

Grouping individual pieces of information into larger, more manageable units

Testing Effect

Taking a test forces you to truly recall/understand information

Serial Position Effect

How the order of presented information affects our ability to remember it (primacy/recency effect; start and end)

Sensory Memory

Shortest form, only a few seconds (includes iconic and echoic)

Short-Term Memory

Around 7 items of time (20-30s)

Working Memory

Updated/dynamic form of short-term memory; stores and processes information

Long-term Memory

Has unlimited capacity and can store information for long periods of time

Parts of the Brain for Explicit Memories

Hippocampus and Frontal Lobe

Parts of the Brain for Implicit Memories

Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia

Flashbulb Memories

Clear and specific memories often formed around traumatic/stressful/emotional memories

Autobiographical Memory

Memories connected to our own lives (memorable because of personal relevance)

Result of Left Hippocampus Damage

Struggling to remember verbal information

Result of Right Hippocampus Damage

Struggling to remember visual information

Anterograde Amnesia

Person can no longer form new memories (mostly hippocampus damage)

Retrograde Amnesia

When a person can’t retrieve past information (blow to head)

Source Amnesia

Can remember the information but not where/how they learned it

Infantile Amnesia

When an adult cannot remember personal experiences from the early years of life

Recall

Retrieving information w/o cues or hints

Recognition

Using retrieval cues to help access the information