philosophy 230 midterm Todd Long

Breakdown of what philosophy means

Philo- means "love of"

Sophia- means "wisdom" in greek

so philosophy means the love of wisdom

philosophy and science

There was no differentiation between the two 200 years ago

scientists: uses physical objects to run experiments: test tubes, equipment, etc.

Philosophers: run through experiments, looks for contingent truths

Philosophy is most like

Mathematics

necessary truth

truth under any possible conditions

contingent truth

truth that is true but not in all cases

ex: there are people in this room

epistemology

ology: comes from logos

episteme: knowledge

the study of knowledge, belief, etc.; study of very basic issues about knowledge and rational belief

proposition

what ever is expressed by a declarative sentence

they are truth value barrers

can be T or F

general requirements to make a proposition true

lack of evidence/ experience against the truth of the claim

evidence for the claim

indication of truth to a person

belief- an attitude that the world is some way

truth

Traditional analysis of knowledge

knowledge is justified true belief

person S knows P is true if and only if

(i) S believes P

(ii) P is true

(iii) S is justified in believing P

Traditional: having evidence for justification

non-tradition: reliable belief formation

Metaphysics

Meta: above, around, near by, etc

Phusis: material/ physical

the study of very basic issues about reality and our place in it that science is unsuited to study.

Argument:

premise and conclusion

without a reason you do not have an argument

Premise:

supporting detail, use them to prove conclusion

examples of premise and conclusions

all apples are composed of organic molecules

red delicious apples are apples

red delicious apples are composed of organic molecules

common indicators of a conclusion

thus

therefore

hense

as a result

ergo

it follows that

consiquently

common premises

because

since

for (the reason that)

given that

do to

assuming

rhetorical conclusion

don't state concluding, but the conclusion should be obvious die to the premise

validity test

1. assume all premises are true

2. is it possible for the conclusion to be false

3. if 2 is true than the argument fails the test

argument is invalid if it fails validity test

valid

an argument that the truth of premise logically garentees the truth of conclusion.

cannot be true if all premises are true and conclusion is false

no premise or conclusion can be valid/ invalid, only the argument can be valid/ invalid

this is a objective test

conclusive premises test

1. "do I have any reason to believe each premise"

*if yes go to step 2

*if no argument fails test

2. "do I have any reason to disbelieve any premise"

*if yes argument fails test (invalid)

*if no argument passes test (valid)

this is a subjective test

Test for soundness

passes both the validity and conclusive premises test

all premises are true

It is possible to pass both tests but not have perfect evidence, so it is not sound

The socrates problem

socrates didn't write things down but Plato did. so who's views are who's when Socrates is speaking in Plato's book

1) early phase

the apology, credo, Euthypho, Meno are in Socrates views

2) Middle phase

phased, republic, symposium

combo of Socrates and Plato

If idea/view contradicts early phase then it is Plato's view

3) Late phase

tomaes, paramenides, laws, philebus

mainly all Plato's views

What did Socrates mean on page 107

"practicing philosophy properly is for practicing for dying and death"

Goods:

Soul

-intelligence, consciousness, thought, reason, etc.

-cognitive

-soul can lead you to truth, knowledge, wisdom, etc

- ^ will lead you to The Just, Beautiful, Good, Equal

Bads:

Body

-materials/ physical senses and emotions, desires pertaining to the senses

-effective/ cognitive

-mixing good and bad will lead you to the bad

-body will lead you away from knowledge and lead you to opinion/ belief

socrates view on reincarnation

if you do not live a life of philosophy your soul will be dragged down by the body and may be placed in a new body such as a plant or animal

argument that socrates makes

1) all living souls come from the world of the dead [ancient theory]

*P

2) If (1), it is not possible for should in the land of the dead to come to the world of the living

*if P than Q

3) if it is not impossible for souls in the world of the dead to come to the world of the living [1,2]

*Q, Not Q

4) if souls do not preexist in the world of the dead, than it is impossible for souls to come to the world of the living

*If P than Q

C) souls preexist in the world of the dead ( it is not the case that souls do not preexist in the land of the dead)

*Not P

Opposites argument by Plato

1) if something smaller comes to be than it comes from something that was larger before and if something larger comes to be than it comes from something smaller before.

*If P than Q

2) if... weaker.. stronger... stronger... weaker

3) if... swifter... slower... slower ... swifter

4) if... worse... better... better... worse

5) if more just... less just... less just... more just

*[2-5] P

6) if 1-5 are true than all things that have opposites come form their opposites.

7) all things that have opposites come form their opposites [1-6]

*Q, All A's are B's

8) being dead and being live are opposites

*A

9) being dead comes form being alive and being alive comes form being dead [7-8]

*B

passes validity test

hole in opposites argument

6 is false because not all opposites come from their opposites

ex: hot and cold

7 is then false as a conclusion because 6 is false

does not pass conclusive premises test Invalid

casual interpretation

y causes X

there could be counter examples

non casual interpretations

X used to be y

The forms

-Beautiful, Just, Equal, etc

-perfect and unchanging

-invisible

-not physical

-not spacial/ temporal

-eternal/ timeless existence

-They are patterns, models, "blueprints", examples of all the particular things that are sensible to us

- they are the only knowable things

- forms are known from pure thought alone

-originally our souls know all the forms

- in our embodied state we can recollect the forms we have forgotten

Plato believes that all knowledge is by pure thought; all embodied knowledge is recollected

Particulars

-sensory objects

-imperfect, changing, visible

-temporal, spacial

-not eternal

-imperfect representation of the forms

-have beliefs/ opinions (never knowledge)of particulars via the senses

-the soul can have knowledge of the forms because the should is akin to the forms

Plato divided line

- nous/ episteme -eide (the forms)

___ ___ ____ ____ ____ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ____ ___

-Diana (grasping) -mathematica

(relations)

_____________________________________________________________

-pistis (perceiving) -somatus (bodies)

__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _

-eikasis (image) -Eikones (icons)

above solid line is knowledge/real

below solid line is belief/ opinion/ unreal

even if physical representation does not exist, the forms will always exist because they are eternal

universalism about sameness

S1 is true in the virtue of the fact that this and that share the same property: being wooden. Being wooden is a general things in the sense that it is shareable by multiple things. because it is shareable, it is a universal

problem: mystery: no time and space is relatable to things in time and space

plato would except this

Pure nominalism about sameness

only particular things exist; so there are no universals. S1 is true in virtue of the word "wooden" being true of this and that. "Wooden" is true of this and that only because we apply the word "Wooden" to this and to that

language specific

Aristotle would except this

problem: two regions of universe exist but we have not named them and yet they could be the same

Class nominalism about sameness

only particular things exists; there are no universals. S1 is true in virtue of this and that being in a class together: the set of wooden things

set theory: sets are individuated by their members. Sets are just when their members are the same. For any number of things, there is a set of those things.

the nulls set is the set with no members

Problem: unsubstantiated types: there are no instances

S5: there are no unicorns

S6: there are no superhero

S7: superhero are not unicorns

S7 is not true because both them are in the null set

to fix this Possibilia: non actual existing things. "possible worlds" this makes S7 true

All As are Bs.

x is an A.

x is a B.

All chimps are mammals.

Cheetah is a chimp.

Cheetah is a mammal.

Valid

All As are Bs.

X is not a B.

X is not an A.

All chimps are amphibians.

Cheetah is not an amphibian. Cheetah is not a chimp.

Valid

If P, then Q.

P.

Q.

If Cheetah is a chimp, then horses cannot swim. Cheetah is a chimp.

Horses cannot swim.

Valid

If P, then Q

Not Q

Not P

If Cheetah is a chimp, then Cheetah is a mammal. It's not the case that Cheetah is a mammal.

It's not the case that Cheetah is a chimp.

Valid

Either P or Q

Not P

Q

Either the Braves win the Pennant, or the Phillies win the Pennant. The Phillies do not win the Pennant.

The Braves win the Pennant.

Valid

If P, then Q

If Q, then R

if P, then R

If the sun is made of zebras, then Marilyn Monroe was a man.

If Marilyn Monroe was a man, then Tiger Woods is the greatest golfer. If the sun is made of zebras, then Tiger Woods is the greatest golfer.

Valid

All As are Bs

x is not an A

x is not a B

All chimps are mammals.

Cheetah is not a chimp.

Cheetah is not a mammal.

invalid

All As are Bs

X is a B

X is an A

All chimps are mammals.

Cheetah is a mammal.

Cheetah is a chimp.

Invalid

If P, then Q

Q

Thus, P

If it rains, then Sally takes an umbrella.

Sally takes an umbrella.

It rains.

invalid

If P, then Q

Not P

Not Q

If it rains, then Sally takes an umbrella.

It doesn't rain.

Sally doesn't take an umbrella.

invalid

Either P or Q

P

Q

Either the earth revolves around the sun, or the moon is made of cheese.

The earth revolves around the sun.

The moon is made of cheese

Invalid