Psych GRE: Physiological/Behavioral Neuroscience

What is neuroanatomy?

Neuroanatomy relates to the parts and functions of individual nerve cells, known as neurons.

What is a neuron?

A neuron is an individual nerve cell.

Name the parts of a neuron

1. dendrites

2. cell body/soma

3. axon hillock

4. axon

5. myelin sheath

6. nodes of Ranvier

7. terminal buttons

8. neurotransmitters

9. synapse/synaptic cleft

What is the function of the following part of a neuron: dendrite

Dendrites are branch-like arms attached to the cell body that receive information from other neurons

What is the function of the following part of a neuron: cell body/soma

the cell body/soma is the "brain" of the neuron, making up gray matter, and containing the nucleus

What is the function of the axon hillock?

connects the cell body to the axon

What is the function of the axon?

Axons are tube-like structures that transmit information (via electrical impulse) from the cell body to the terminal buttons

What is the function of the myelin sheath?

The myelin sheath is the fatty layer around some axons that insulates the electric impulse and allows information to travel faster from the cell body to the terminal buttons.

The myelin sheath also acts as insulation so that signals don't travel to every adjacent neuron, but just to the intended neuron(s).

What is the function of the terminal buttons?

Terminal buttons are where information from the axon ends up, and contain neurotransmitters.

What are synonyms for "terminal buttons"?

end buttons, synaptic knobs, axon terminals, terminal branches of axons

That three ethologists shared the Nobel prize in 1973?

Konrad Lorenz, Nikolaas Tinbergen, and Karl von Frisch

Ethology

the study of animal behaviors

What did Charles Darwin believe was instrumental to evolution?

natural selection

Who was the founder of ethology research?

Konrad Lorenz

What subjects within ethology is Konrad Lorenz known for?

-animal aggression

-imprinting

-releasing stimuli

-fixed action patterns

Why did Konrad Lorenz believe animal aggression was innate?

He believed, based on natural selection, that aggression in animals ensured that the strongest in a species survived, passing on their genes to future generations, and was therefore instinctual

Who do baby birds think is their mom?

Konrad Lorenz found that baby birds (and some other species) form an attachment to the first moving object they see after birth. This is called imprinting.

According to Konrad Lorenz (and further supported by the research of Nikolaas Tinbergen), what triggered fixed action patterns?

releasing stimuli (or sign stimuli or simply releasers)

What is a fixed action pattern?

It is a chain of behaviors or events within species brought on by a releasing stimuli

What are the four characteristics of fixed action patterns?

1. uniformity

2. performed by most of a species

3. more complex than reflexes

4. unstoppable once they have started

what is the function of neurotransmitters?

Neurotransmitters are chemicals in the axon terminals that attempt to communicate with dendrites on other neurons.

Neurotransmitters must "fit" with dendritic receptor sites, like a key in a lock, to continue to the next neuron.

what is the function of they synapse

The synapse, also called the synaptic cleft, is the gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the information-seeking dendrite of the next neuron.

The end of the first neuron is the presynaptic cell, and the beginning of the next neuron is the postsynaptic cell.

How is information transferred in the brain?

Within the cells, information is transmitted as an electric signal, but when it reaches the axon terminal, it is converted into chemicals that move between one neuron and the next.

Can a neuron fire at different magnitudes?

No, a neuron will fire completely if it reaches or exceeds the depolarization threshold, or not at all, which is called the all-or-none principle.

How is an action potential (or nerve impulse) created?

Positively or negatively charged chemical signals enter the dendrite and move to the cell body, which is slightly negatively charged. If these chemical signals depolarize the cell body enough, an action potential will occur, which will fire electrical information down the axon to the axon terminal.

Two types of neurotransmitters

Some neurotransmitters are excitatory, prodding the cell body to fire, and others are inhibitory, which prevent the creation of a cell's action potential.

Describe the path of information within a neuron from beginning to end

dendrite (chemical signals) --> cell body (become electrical signals) --> axon --> axon terminal (become chemical signals) --> synapse --> dendrite of next neuron

When neurotransmitters from the axon terminal are released, they attempt to connect with what?

receptor sites on the postsynaptic dendrite

threshold in terms of neurons

the threshold is the level of depolarization a cell body must reach to produce an action potential

What is the function of this neurotransmitter and what problems are associated with too much or too little of it?

acetylcholine

function: motor movement

problem: Alzheimer's disease linked to acetylcholine deficit

What is the function of this neurotransmitter and what problems are associated with too much or too little of it?

endorphins

function: pleasure and pain control

problem: endorphins are released when pleasure areas of the brain are stimulated, so addictions are linked to endorphins

What is the function of this neurotransmitter and what problems are associated with too much or too little of it?

dopamine

function: motor movement and alertness

problems: Parkinson's disease (dopamine deficiency) and Schizophrenia (excessive dopamine), linked to addiction

Dopamine is a monoamine, and part of the catecholamine class.

What is the function of this neurotransmitter and what problems are associated with too much or too little of it?

serotonin

function: mood control

problem: deficiency linked to clinical depression

Serotonin is a monoamine, and part of the indolamine class.

What is the difference between afferent and efferent neurons?

Afferent neurons, or sensory neurons, carry information to the brain.

Efferent neurons, or motor neurons, carry information from the brain to the body.

What are the subdivisions of the nervous system?

central nervous system:

-brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system:

-somatic

-autonomic: sympathetic, parasympathetic

What is the difference between the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system?

The central nervous system includes the nerves in bones.

The peripheral nervous systems includes the nerves not encased in bone.

When you want to answer a question in class, what part of the nervous system controls your ability to raise your hand?

The somatic nervous system controls voluntary muscle movements

When your stomach being to growl before lunch, what part of the nervous system is activated?

The autonomic nervous system is activated, which controls the parts of our bodies that work automatically, like heart beats, breathing, and digestive muscles.

What does the sympathetic nervous system do?

Like the gas pedal in a car, the sympathetic nervous system accelerates functions needed for responding quickly to stress, like breathing, heart rate, and pupil dilation, and slows functions not immediately necessary, like digestion.

What is the function of the parasympathetic nervous system?

The parasympathetic nervous system is like the brake pedal of a car, counteracting the sympathetic nervous system after stress has passed. It is also active during periods of "sex, sleep, and sustenance".

How did Phineas Gage contribute to the field of psychology?

Phineas Gage received frontal lobe damage after an accident, and his personality changed dramatically.

This helped researchers conclude that the damaged part of the brain is an area where emotion regulation is controlled.

What are the ways in which psychologists study the functions of different brain areas?

- accidents

- lesions

- EEG

- CAT or CT

- MRI

- PET

- fMRI

Describe the following method of studying the brain:

lesions

When brain lesions happen through damage or as a byproduct of a surgical procedure (ie. to stop seizures), psychologists are able to see what functions are impaired in a real world setting and glean the way the damaged area of the brain works.

electroencephalogram (EEG)

Used largely in sleep research, the electroencephalogram (EEG) detects brain waves during different states of consciousness.

Describe the following method of studying the brain:

Computerized Axial Tomography

Also known as a CAT or CT, this method can get a 3D X-ray image of the brain, which is helpful for detecting structural problems, like tumors, but does not aid in detecting brain activity.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Similar to a CAT scan, an MRI provides an image of the brain, rather than clues to its activation.

Unlike a CAT scan, however, the MRI uses magnetic fields to image brain density and does not expose the patient to potentially harmful radiation.

Positron Emission Tomography

The PET allows psychologists to see activity in the brain by monitoring how much of a chemical different parts of the brain are using.

Functional MRI

The fMRI is able to see blood flow in the brain during cognitive tasks, which suggests brain functioning. It also contains elements of the MRI, which gives structural information about the patient's brain.

What parts of the brain are located in the hindbrain?

- myelencephalon (medulla)

- metencephalon (pons and cerebellum)

- base of reticular formation

Myelencephalon/medulla

The medulla (or medulla oblongata) connects the brain to the spinal cord. One of the most primitive parts of the brain, it helps control basic functions of life, like respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Describe the part of the brain: pons

The pons connects the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain, and helps control facial expression.

cerebellum

Meaning "little brain", the cerebellum looks like a second smaller brain on the underside of our brain. It is partially responsible for our mind-body connection, particularly in habitual muscle movements.

Describe the part of the brain: reticular formation

Located in the midbrain, the reticular formation controls bodily arousal and our ability to focus.

The reticular formation is believed to be the oldest part of the brain.

Where are the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus located in the brain?

the forebrain

What are the parts of the brain known as the limbic system, and what function does the limbic system serve?

1. thalamus

2. hypothalamus

3. hippocampus

4. amygdala

5. septal area

The limbic system is involved in "fight, flight, feeding, and fornication."

thalamus

Known as the "sensory way station" of the brain, the thalamus receives information from the spinal cord and routes it to the appropriate part of the forebrain for further processing.

hypothalamus

The hypothalamus controls the endocrine system, as well as the metabolic functions like libido, body temperature, hunger, and thirst.

hippocampus

The hippocampus is responsible for converting short-term memories to long-term memories.

amygdala

The amygdala controls emotion and fear.

What are our brains wrinkled?

The surface of the brain is covered with neurons, and wrinkles (or fissures) increase the surface area so more neurons can connect with one another to transmit more information.

Which of the following is chemically similar to opiates, has the ability to reduce pain, and is blocked by the action of naloxone?

endorphins

The bradykinesia, cogwheel rigidity, and tremors that characterize Parkinson's disease are a result of the degeneration of dopaminergic cells in the...

substantia nigra

Rapid eye movements are most closely associated with which of the following?

dreaming

Newlyweds Layla and Keith both have normal color vision, but Layla carries a recessive gene for color deficiency. Which of the following best describes the probabilities of color deficiency in their children?

half of their sons will be color-deficient, but none of their daughters will

A fixed action pattern is defined as a response to a..

sign stimulus

Damaging the suprachiasmic nucleus of the hypothalamus in rats will..

interfere with the biological clock that is synchronized with light

The action potential is triggered at which of the following parts of a neuron?

axon hillock

Gonadal hormones can act early in life to irreversibly determine a rat's mate selection through effects referred to as..

organizational

The inability to recognize a once-familiar face, while still being able to accurately describe elements of the face, is a characteristic symptom of..

prosopagnosia

Damage to which area of the brain leads to a decrease in physically aggressive behavior and social rank?

amygdala

When people first sense a new stimulus, only temporary changes in neurons take place, but eventually more permanent changes occur. This is called what?

consolidation

Which of the following is a type of glial cell that is responsible for producing the myelin sheaths that cover axons?

oligodendrocyte

If you want to kick a soccer ball with your right foot, which hemisphere of the brain controls this, and what principle explains it?

The left hemisphere controls the motor function on the right half of the body and vice versa.

This is called contralateral control.

Split-brain patients have had their corpus callosum severed, usually to treat epilepsy. What two doctors pioneered this surgical procedure?

Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga pioneered this procedure.

corpus callosum

the nerve bundle that runs through the middle of the brain, connecting the hemispheres

It has been suggested that the right hemisphere of the brain is active during spatial and creative tasks, while the left is activated during logic, spoken language, and sequential tasks.

What are the two terms used to describe the differences between the right and left hemispheres?

brain lateralization and hemispheric specialization

What are the 4 lobes in the brain?

1. frontal

2. parietal

3. occipital

4. temporal

What is the area in the anterior frontal lobe called, and what is it responsible for?

The prefrontal cortex, and it is the brain's executive functioning center. It is the part of the brain that is believed to be responsible for reasoning and emotional control.

Without the prefrontal cortex (PFC), we would not be able to make long term plans, regulate our emotions, or consider consequences.

What area of the brain allows us to move our muscles to produce speech?

Broca's area, which is located in the left frontal lobe in most right-handers

The top of the motor cortex controls voluntary muscle movements in what area of the boyd?

The feet and toes are controlled by this area, located at the back of the frontal lobe. The top of the body is controlled by the bottom of the motor cortex.

sensory cortex, or somato-sensory cortex

is located in the parietal lobe behind the motor cortex and receives touch sensations from the body

Why is the area where vision is processed counterintuitive?

The processing of vision is located in the occipital lobe, which is at the very back of the brain, as far as possible from the eyes themselves.

The left and right halves of the visual cortex process information from the same halves of the retinas (meaning processing is lateralized).

Damage to what area of the temporal lobe would result in an inability to understand written or spoken language?

Wernicke's area

What sensory modality is the temporal lobe responsible for processing?

hearing/audition

Unlike vision, hearing is not lateralized. Sound coming in one ear is processed by both hemispheres of the brain.

brain plasticity

As our brains develop, there are skills or functions that are more or less important to perform to each individual. Because of this, the neuronal connections in our brains strengthen or weaken to adapt to those needed functions, especially if there is damage to other areas of the brain.

Why is the endocrine system important to the field of psychology?

This system secretes hormones that are part of our psychological processes.

- The adrenal glands secrete adrenaline, which is necessary for the fight or flight response of the autonomic nervous system

- Ovaries and testes produce testosterone and estrogen, hormones that can help explain gender differences, which are an important part of developmental psychology

Who was Thomas Bouchard and why was his research important?

He was a psychologist who studied identical twins raised in different families vs. twins raised in the same home. His research was important when considering the nature/nurture argument.

- Twins had enough similarities in personality and IQ to suggest a nature component

- Twins raised in different homes also showed enough differences to suggest that nurture (or environment) was a factor in development of personality and intelligence

What is the function of the nodes of Ranvier?

this part of the neuron is the gap between adjacent myelinated segments on the axon

What are the parts of the mesencephalon (midbrain)?

contains the tectum and the tegmentum

What is the purpose of the tectum?

This includes the inferior and superior colliculi and controls vision and audition.

What is the purpose of the tegmentum?

This is home to the remainder of the reticular formation and helps control the sensorimotor system.

What does grey matter consist of?

cell bodies and dendrites

What makes up white matter in the brain?

-myelin sheathing

-axon bundles

-nerve fibers

What are the divisions of the forebrain?

1. diencephalon

2. telencephalon

The posterior part of the forebrain, the diencephalon, contains what two brain parts?

the thalamus and the hypothalamus

The frontal part of the forebrain, the telencephalon, contains what parts of the brain?

1. the limbic system

2. hippocampus

3. amygdala

4. cingulate gyrus

The corticospinal tract, also known as the pyramidal tract, connects what?

the brain and the spine

What does the pituitary gland do?

controls the other glands within the hormonal and endocrine systems

What part of the brain is implicated in the direction of attention and emotion?

the cingulate gyrus

What do the superior colliculi control?

direction of visual gaze and direction of visual attention to stimuli