Introduction to Anatomy, Physiology, and Cytology

Anatomy

Study of body structure and organization.

Physiology

Study of body function and processes.

Gross Anatomy

Study of structures visible to the naked eye.

Microscopic Anatomy

Study of structures requiring a microscope.

Subdivisions of Physiology

organizational level & systematic function

organizational level

cell / organ

systematic function

Neurophysiology, cardiovascular physiology, reproductive physiology, etc...

Characteristics of Life

Includes growth, reproduction, metabolism, and responsiveness.

responsiveness

ability to sense, monitor, and respond to changes in both external and internal environments

conductivity

capacity of a living cell to transmit a wave of electrical disturbance from one point to another

reproduction

the production of offspring

Excretion

the process by which wastes are removed from the body

circulation

movement of substances in body fluids

secretion

a process by which substances are produced and discharged from a cell, gland, or organ for a particular function in the organism or for excretion.

Biological Organization Levels

chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism, ecological

absorption

movement of molecules such as respiratory gases or digested nutrients through a membrane and into the body fluids for transport to cells for use

digestion

Breakdown of food substances into simpler forms that can be absorbed and used

respiration

exchange of respiratory gases between an organism and its environment

Anatomical Position

Standard body position: standing, facing forward.

growth

increase in size or number of cells

Orthostasis

Standing upright position of the body.

Supine Position

Lying on the back, face up.

Prone Position

Lying on the stomach, face down.

Axial Skeleton

Includes skull, vertebral column, and rib cage.

Appendicular Skeleton

Includes limbs and their attachments.

inferior

below

Superior

above

Dorsal Body Cavity

Contains the brain and spinal cord.

Ventral Body Cavity

Contains thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

Abdominopelvic Quadrants

Divided into four regions for organ location.

Abdominopelvic Regions

Includes nine regions for detailed anatomical reference.

Homeostasis

Maintenance of stable internal conditions.

Feedback Control Loop

sensor mechanism, integrator/control center, effector mechanism, and feedback

Positive Feedback

Enhances or accelerates a process.

Negative Feedback

Reduces or inhibits a process.

Normal Aging

Gradual physiological changes, not disease-related.

matter

Anything that has mass and takes up space

element

A pure substance made of only one kind of atom

compound

A pure substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds

molecule

A group of atoms bonded together

11 body systems

1. Integumentary

2. Skeletal

3. Muscular

4. Nervous

5. Endocrine

6. Cardiovascular

7. Lymphatic

8. Respiratory

9. Digestive

10. Urinary

11. Reproductive

frontal/coronal plane

Vertical plane dividing the body or structure into anterior and posterior portions

sagittal plane

divides body into left and right

transverse/horizontal plane

divides the body into superior and inferior parts

oxygen

component of water & essential for respiration

carbon

found in all organic molecules

hydrogen

A component of water and most other compounds in the body

nitrogen

Found in proteins, nucleic acids, and other organic compounds

calcium

found in bones & teeth, important for membrane function, nerve impulses, muscle contraction, blood clotting

atoms

Building blocks of matter

atomic mass

Number of protons and neutrons

atomic number

the number of protons in an atom

ionic bond

Formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another

covalent bond

A chemical bond that involves sharing a pair of electrons between atoms in a molecule

polar covalent bonds

unequal sharing of electrons

monomers

A chemical subunit that serves as a building block of a polymer.

polymers

chains of monomers

oligo-

few or small

isomers

Metabolism

the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life.

catabolism

breaking down

anabolism

building up larger molecules from smaller ones.

systhesis reactions

involve the formation of larger, more complex molecules, an important type is dehydration synthesis

decomposition reaction

a reaction in which a single compound breaks down to form two or more simpler substances

exchange reaction

Parts of the reacting molecules are shuffled around to produce new products

oxidation

loss of electrons

reduction

gain of electrons

unique properties of water

solvent, heat properties, chemical reactions, makes life possible

acids

pH below 7

bases

pH above 7

salts

electrolytes formed by the reaction between an acid and a base

alkaline

having a pH greater than 7

carbohydrates

lipids

proteins / polypeptides

nucleic acids

Monosaccharides

Single sugar molecules

Disaccharide

A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis.

Oligosaccharides

short chains of 3 or more monosaccharides (at least 10)

Polysaccharides

Carbohydrates that are made up of more than two monosaccharides

saturated fats

fats that are solid at room temperature

unsaturated fats

liquid at room temperature

polyunsaturated fats

more than one double bond

primary protein structure

sequence of a chain of amino acids

secondary protein structure

coiling or folding of a polypeptide due to H-bonding between amino acids

tertiary protein structure

3D folding pattern of a protein due to side chain interactions

quaternary protein structure

2+ protein chains forming functional protein

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating material present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information.

RNA

A single-stranded nucleic acid that passes along genetic messages

codons

The three-base sequence of nucleotides in mRNA

introns

Noncoding segments of nucleic acid that lie between coding sequences.

exons

expressed sequence of DNA; codes for a protein

ATP

(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work

cytology

study of structure and function of cells

sex cells

egg and sperm

somatic cells

Any cells in the body other than reproductive cells

3 main parts of a human cell

1. plasma membrane

2. cytoplasm

3. nucleus

differing functions of cells in the human body

composition of plasma membrane

lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates

function of plasma membrane

Controls what enters and leaves the cell