A&P 201

Homeostasis

Maintaining a stable internal environment.

Stimulus

A change in the environment.

Sensor (Receptor)

Detects a change.

Integrating Center

Receives information and determines a response.

Effector

Carries out the response.

Insulin

Lowers blood glucose.

Glucagon

Raises blood glucose.

Glycogen

Storage form of glucose.

Glycogenesis

Formation of glycogen.

Glycogenolysis

Breakdown of glycogen.

Gluconeogenesis

Making glucose from non-carbohydrates.

Lipogenesis

Making fat.

Lipolysis

Breaking down fat.

Hypothalamus

Controls temperature and oxytocin release.

Medulla

Controls blood pressure.

Baroreceptors

Detect blood pressure changes.

Thermoreceptors

Detect temperature changes.

Normal Blood pH

7.35-7.45.

Acidosis

Blood pH below 7.35.

Alkalosis

Blood pH above 7.45.

Fastest pH Correction

Lungs.

Slowest pH Correction

Kidneys.

Oxytocin

Hormone involved in childbirth and breastfeeding.

Childbirth Sensor

Stretch receptors in cervix.

Childbirth Effector

Uterine smooth muscle.

Breastfeeding Sensor

Touch receptors in nipple.

Breastfeeding Effector

Milk glands.

Mitochondria

Produces ATP.

Golgi Apparatus

Modifies and packages proteins.

Lysosome

Digests waste and cellular debris.

Peroxisome

Breaks down toxins.

Catalase

Breaks down hydrogen peroxide.

Microvilli

Increase surface area.

Exocytosis

Releases substances from a cell.

Neurotransmitter Release

Occurs by exocytosis.

Cytosol

Liquid portion of the cell.

Fluid Mosaic Model

Proteins move within membrane.

Hydrophilic Heads

Face outward in membrane.

Hydrophobic Tails

Face inward in membrane.

Gene Expression

Transcription and translation.

Transcription

DNA to RNA.

Translation

RNA to protein.

Euchromatin

Active DNA.

Heterochromatin

Inactive DNA.

DNA Helicase

Unzips DNA.

Adenine

Pairs with Thymine.

Cytosine

Pairs with Guanine.

Prophase

Chromosomes condense.

Metaphase

Chromosomes line up.

Anaphase

Chromosomes separate.

Telophase

New nuclei form.

Meiosis

Occurs in ovaries and testes.

Haploid Cells

Sperm and egg cells.

Hypertrophy

Increase in cell size.

Hyperplasia

Increase in cell number.

Example of Hypertrophy

Muscle growth.

Example of Hyperplasia

Callus formation.

Glycolysis

Glucose to 2 pyruvate.

Location of Glycolysis

Cytoplasm.

Input of Glycolysis

1 glucose.

Output of Glycolysis

2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH.

Fermentation

Produces lactic acid.

Location of Fermentation

Cytoplasm.

Output of Fermentation

Lactic acid and 2 ATP.

Pyruvate Processing

2 pyruvate to 2 acetyl-CoA.

Location of Pyruvate Processing

Mitochondria.

Output of Pyruvate Processing

2 acetyl-CoA, 2 NADH, 2 CO2.

Krebs Cycle Input

2 acetyl-CoA.

Location of Krebs Cycle

Mitochondria.

Krebs Cycle Products

6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP, 4 CO2.

Electron Transport Chain

Main ATP-producing step.

Location of ETC

Mitochondria.

ETC Products

30-32 ATP, H2O.

Total Aerobic ATP

34-36 ATP.

Anaerobic ATP

2 ATP.

Oxygen Function

Final electron acceptor.

Cyanide Effect

Blocks electron transport chain.

Ischemia

Reduced blood flow.

Angina Cause

Lactic acid buildup.

Cori Cycle

Liver converts lactate into glucose.

Lactic Acid

Produced during fermentation.

Triglycerides

Break into fatty acids and ketones.

Ketosis

Using ketones for energy.

Ketoacidosis

Excess ketones lower blood pH.

Excess Amino Acids

Become urea.

BUN

Blood Urea Nitrogen.

BUN

Measures kidney function.

Liver Converts Cholesterol

Into bile.

Enzyme for Glycogenesis

Glycogen synthase.

Enzyme for Glycogenolysis

Glycogen phosphorylase.

Converts Glucose-6-Phosphate to Glucose

Glucose-6-phosphatase.

Heart and Blood Vessels

Effectors for blood pressure regulation.

Skeletal Muscles

Warm body by shivering.

Sweat Glands

Cool body by sweating.