ethnography and participant observation

ETHNOGRAPHY

= (same as participant observation) when a researcher(s) is/are immersed in a social setting for an extended period of time, provides different information opposed to surveys (difference between experiencing and recalling an experience). Involving observing behaviour, asking questions, and analyzing the conversation

ETHNOGRAPHY ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

= Always consult an ethnic board (better to ask than do things without guidance/approval), though there are times where we may not need consent

SOCIAL SETTINGS

= any setting people can potentially be in

OPEN/PUBLIC SETTINGS VS CLOSED/PRIVATE SETTINGS

open/public = accessible to everyone - ex: park

closed/private = not accessible to everyone; in public areas but closed off - ex: elementary school/intensive care unit

CLOSED/PRIVATE SETTINGS CONSIDERATIONS (6)

• Requires ethical approval 

• Needs to be feasible: can you design a study for this place?

• Needs to have good rapport with someone that has access to the place

• Be explicit about time commitment 

• Offer something in return -> acknowledge benefits for both sides

• Prepare to negotiate/for the facility to deny access

OVERT VS COVERT

Overt = not disclosing the fact that you are researching in the setting

Covert = open about the fact that they you are researching in the setting

FOUR TYPES OF ETHNOGRAPHY

1. open/public setting; overt role = obvious presence

2. open/public setting; covert role = unaware of observation in a public space

3. Closed setting; overt role = gaining approval to a space with known observation

4. Closed setting; covert role = gaining approval with unknown observation by most people

CONSIDERATIONS FOR ACCESS TO SOCIAL SETTINGS (3)

1. Feasibility 

2. Reactivity

3. Adaptability

KEY INFORMANTS

= people with specific knowledge about certain aspects of the social phenomenon -> consulting with them is useful for forming connections to gain access to certain settings. Considerations: 

• Section and number needed (may be more than one person)

• Overreliance (be careful of constantly referring back to them)

• Solicited vs unsolicited information (is the information being provided useful/relevant?)

ETHNOGRAPHER ROLES (4)

Involvement

• Complete participant

• Participant-as-observer 

• Observer-as-participant 

• Complete observer

Detachment

-> distinguishing between the middle two is about which are you more of

THINGS TO KEEP IN MIND WHILE TAKING FIELD NOTES (5)

• Document everything, regardless of how brief 

• Include key dimensions of the social phenomenon -> including information that may affect behavior 

• Keep research questions in mind

• Add more details when appropriate 

• audio/visual documentation if applicable

FOUR TYPES OF FIELD NOTES

1. Mental notes = not physically written down but things we try to remember to document later (technically not a type)

2. Jotted notes = quick notes, lacks details -> tries to capture everything with the help of mental notes

3. Full field notes = main source for ethnographic research; documenting as much we can when it is feasible

4. Analytic memos = based on the observations already documented, tries to make connections between observations or document the connections between observations that are already made

ETHNOGRAPHY PHOTOS

= images created for research; not considered ethnography - mostly memory aids, prompts for discussion 

Two positions:

• Realist = the photo captures what is there and the researchers are interpreting it 

• Reflexive = the researchers need to identify aspects of themselves that can bias their interpretation

THREE SAMPLING TYPES IN ETHNOGRAPHY

1. Purposive sampling = cases are selected to ensure a rich source of info on the phenomenon (e.g., group, setting, etc.) being studied

2. Snowball sampling = researchers make initial contact with a small group of people connected to the phenomenon under study and those people establish connections with others

3. Theoretical sampling = emerging theoretical considerations guide data collection and/or the selection of cases and continues until theoretical saturation (i.e., the point where emerging concepts have been fully explored and no new insights are being generated) is reached

THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN CONDUCTING ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

• The categorical (i.e. the assignment of codes; saturation occurs when there are no new insights, category has been explored in depth, new data is only redundant) and/or theoretical saturation (i.e. signifies no value in collecting more data to develop theory)

• Be explicit about departure from social setting and be sure all ethnical commitments are upheld