theories of late modernity

• Unlike postmodernism, theories of late modernity argue that the rapid changes we are witnessing are not what? On the contrary, these changes are actually a c___^ of modernity itself.

• However, theories of late modernity do recognise that something important is happening.

• In their view, key features of modernity that were always p____ have now become i____. For example, social change has always been a feature of modern society, but now the p____ of change has gone into o____.

• In other words, we are still within m_____, but we have entered its l____' p____.

• In this view, if we are still in the modern era, then wha5 is still useful

• Unlike postmodernism, theories of late modernity do subscribe to what?

• Unlike postmodernism, theories of late modernity argue that the rapid changes we are witnessing are not the dawn of a new, postmodern era. On the contrary, these changes are actually a continuation of modernity itself.

• However, theories of late modernity do recognise that something important is happening.

• In their view, key features of modernity that were always present have now become intensified. For example, social change has always been a feature of modern society, but now the pace of change has gone into overdrive.

• In other words, we are still within modernity, but we have entered its late' phase.

• In this view, if we are still in the modern era, then the theories of modernist sociology are still useful.

• Unlike postmodernism, theories of late modernity do subscribe to the Enlightenment project - they still believe we can discover objective knowledge and use it to improve society.

Giddens: reflexivity

• According to Giddens, we are now at the stage of l____ or hfff modernity. A defining characteristic of modern society is what?

This is because of two key features of modernity: disembedding and reflexivity:

• Giddens defines disembedding as what? In other words, today we no longer need what? in order to interact - disembedding breaks down g____ barriers and makes i___more i____.

• Giddens argues that in high modern society, t____ and c____ become much less important and no longer serve as a g_____ to how we should act, and we become more i_____. For example, sons are no longer expected to do what? but are free to pursue their own i_____ goals instead.

• Because tradition no longer tells us how to act, we are forced to become reflexive. what does this mean?

• Consequently, reflexivity means that we are all continually r____-e____ our ideas and theories - nothing is f_____ or p____, everything is up for c____. Under these conditions, culture in late modern society becomes increasingly u____ and s____ to c___.

Giddens: disembedding snd reflexivity

• According to Giddens, we are now at the stage of late or high modernity. A defining characteristic of modern society is that it experiences rapid change - often on a global scale.

This is because of two key features of modernity: disembedding and reflexivity:

• Giddens defines disembedding as 'the lifting out of social relations from local contexts of interaction'. In other words, today we no longer need face-to-face contact in order to interact - disembedding breaks down geographical barriers and makes interaction more impersonal.

• Giddens argues that in high modern society, tradition and custom become much less important and no longer serve as a guide to how we should act, and we become more individualistic. For example, sons are no longer expected to follow the same occupation as their fathers but are free to pursue their own individual goals instead.

• Because tradition no longer tells us how to act, we are forced to become reflexive. That is, we have to constantly monitor, reflect on and modify our actions in the light of information about the possible risks and opportunities that they might involve.

• Consequently, reflexivity means that we are all continually re-evaluating our ideas and theories - nothing is fixed or permanent, everything is up for challenge. Under these conditions, culture in late modern society becomes increasingly unstable and subject to change.

Giddens: disembedding snd reflexivity

• Together, disembedding and reflexivity account for the r____ and w_____ nature of s____ c_____ in high modernity.

• in particular, by enabling s___ i____ to spread rapidly across the g___^, they help to drive globalisation.

Giddens: disembedding snd reflexivity

• Together, disembedding and reflexivity account for the rapid and widespread nature of social change in high modernity.

• in particular, by enabling social interaction to spread rapidly across the globe, they help to drive globalisation.

Modernity and risk

• According to G____, in late modernity we face a number of what?

• These include m_____ risks such as n____ w____, e____ r____ such as the i____ of the c____ economy, e____ risks such as g____ h____, and threats to our f___ from increased s___ s_____

• All of these are 'm___' or h____-m___ rather than n___ r___.

• However, Giddens rejects the postmodernist view that we cannot i____ to improve things. He believes we can make r____ p____ to r___these r___ and achieve p___ to a b___ society.

Modernity and risk

• According to Giddens, in late modernity we face a number of high consequence risks - major threats to human society.

• These include military risks such as nuclear war, economic risks such as the instability of the capitalist economy, environmental risks such as global heating, and threats to our freedom from increased state surveillance.

• All of these are 'manufactured' or human-made rather than natural risks.

• However, Giddens rejects the postmodernist view that we cannot intervene to improve things. He believes we can make rational plans to reduce these risks and achieve progress to a better society.

Modernity and risk →Beck: risk society

• Like Giddens, U____ B____ (1992) is in the Enlightenment tradition. That is, he believes in what?

• However, he believes that today's late modern society - which he calls 'r___ s____' - faces new kinds of dangers:

• In the past, society faced dangers how? Today, the dangers we face are m____ risks resulting from h___ a____, such as g____ warming.

• Also like G____, Beck sees l___ m____ as a period of growing i____, in which we become increasingly r___.

• T___ no longer governs how we act. As a result, we have to t____ for o____ and r_____ on the possible consequences of our choice of action.

• This means we must constantly take account of the what? Beck calls this r____ m____.

• As a result, what? becomes increasingly central to our culture - we become more aware of what+ example

• However, a great deal of our knowledge about risks comes from the m____, which often give a d___ v___ of the d___ we face.

Modernity and risk →Beck: risk society

• Like Giddens, Ulrich Beck (1992) is in the Enlightenment tradition. That is, he believes in the power of reason to create a better world.

• However, he believes that today's late modern society - which he calls 'risk society' - faces new kinds of dangers:

• In the past, society faced dangers as a result of its inability to control nature, such as drought, famine and disease .Today, the dangers we face are manufactured risks resulting from human activities, such as global warming.

• Aso like Giddens, Beck sees late modernity as a period of growing individualisation, in which we become increasingly reflexive.

• Tradition no longer governs how we act. As a result, we have to think for ourselves and reflect on the possible consequences of our choice of action.

• This means we must constantly take account of the risks attached to the different courses of action open to us. Beck calls this reflexive modernisation.

• As a result, 'risk consciousness' becomes increasingly central to our culture - we become more aware of perceived risks and seek to avoid or minimise them. For example, we read of the dangers or benefits of this or that food and change our eating habits accordingly.

• However, a great deal of our knowledge about risks comes from the media, which often give a distorted view of the dangers we face.

Risk, politics and progress

• Postmodernists such as B_____ reject the Enlightenment project, with its belief in the possibility of p____ through action based on r____ k____. Beck d___ with this position.

• Although he is s____ about s____ p____ because of the risks it has brought, he still believes in our ability to use r___ to o____ them.

• Because we are capable of r____, we can e____ r____ r____ and take p___ a____ to reduce them. For example, B____ looks to new political movements such as e_____ to challenge the direction of t____ d__.

Risk, politics and progress

• Postmodernists such as Baudrillard reject the Enlightenment project, with its belief in the possibility of progress through action based on rational knowledge. Beck disagrees with this position.

• Although he is sceptical about scientific progress because of the risks it has brought, he still believes in our ability to use rationality to overcome them. B

• ecause we are capable of reflexivity, we can evaluate risks rationally and take political action to reduce them. For example, Beck looks to new political movements such as environmentalism to challenge the direction of technological development.

Evaluation of theortes of late modernity

✓- However, theories of late modernity do provide a sociological alternative to what?. They show that r____ a___ of society remains p____.

✓- They also recognise that, while our knowledge may never be perfect, we can still do what?

✘ The concept of reflexivity suggests what? However, not everyone has this option.

• For example, the p___ are generally exposed to more e____ r____ because they are more likely to live in h___ p____ areas, but may be unable to afford to move to a h___ one.

✘- Criticising B___, R_____ (1994) argues that it is c____, with its pursuit of p____ at all costs, that is the source of risk, not t_____ such.

✘- H____ (1993) rejects Beck's view that movements such as e____ will bring about significant change, because they are too f____ to challenge capitalism.

Evaluation of theortes of late modernity

✓- However, theories of late modernity do provide a sociological alternative to postmodernism. They show that rational analysis of society remains possible.

✓- They also recognise that, while our knowledge may never be perfect, we can still use it to improve society and reduce the risks we face.

✘ The concept of reflexivity suggests that we reflect on our actions and then are free to re-shape our lives accordingly to reduce our exposure to risks.However, not everyone has this option.

• For example, the poor are generally exposed to more environmental risks because they are more likely to live in heavily polluted areas, but may be unable to afford to move to a healthier one.

✘- Criticising Beck, Rustin (1994) argues that it is capitalism, with its pursuit of profit at all costs, that is the source of risk, not technology as such.

✘- Hirst (1993) rejects Beck's view that movements such as environmentalism will bring about significant change, because they are too fragmented to challenge capitalism.