Metalanguage Terms

What is Phonetics?

The study of how we make speech sounds and how we organise these sounds

What is Phonology?

The study of the patterns that speech sounds form within a language

What are the four connected speech processes that we use when speaking naturally in order to connect sounds together and make them easier to say?

Assimilation, vowel reduction, elision and insertion.

Assimilation

When a speech sound changes to become more like the neighbouring sound. This change can be in terms of place of articulation, manner of articulation or voicing. E.g. in Handbag ---> Hambag

Vowel reduction

In unstressed syllables, vowels often become less distinct, reducing to a more central vowel, typically a schwa. E.g. the first syllable in banana isn't stressed like the others

Elision

The omission of a sound of syllable in spoken language, like in contractions. E.g. 'I have' is frequently contracted to 'I've', with a contraction of the 'h' and 'a' sounds.

Insertion

The addition of sounds to ease pronunciation. E.g. 'Warmth' has a /p/ sound inserted in some dialects, making it sound like 'warmpth'

What are prosodic features of speech?

Elements of our voices that affect whole sequences of syllables.

What are the 5 prosodic features of speech?

Pitch, intonation, stress, tempo and volume

Pitch

The relative height of auditory sound

Intonation

Patterns of pitch across phrases, clauses and sentences

Stress

Intensity placed on a syllable. Emphasis is created by increasing length, volume of pitch of syllable compared to surrounding syllables.

Tempo

Pace intonation unit is delivered

Volume

Change in decibels across an intonation unit. When it occurs across a long stretch of an intonation unit, it must be analysed within the situational context.

What is the IPA?

The International Phonetic Alphabet is a set of symbols used to represent phonetic sounds. It encompasses all languages and has symbols for each sound (phoneme)

What is morphology?

The study of words and their parts. Each word is made up of morphemes, the smallest units of meaning in a word.

What are the 10 morphological patterns (also called word formation processes)?

affixation, abbreviation, acronym, blending, backformation, compounding, conversion of word class, contraction, initialism and shortening

Affixation

The use of affixes (prefixes, suffixes or infixes) to create new words (neologisms). E.g. 'government' from 'govern' with suffix 'ment'

Abbreviation

Shortened forms of words or phrases, including shortenings, initialisms and acronyms. E.g. 'VCAA' pronounced 'V' then 'car'

Shortening

Abbreviation of a word by reducing its length. E.g. fridge, pram, etc

Compounding

Joining multiple words to create a single one. E.g. bookcase and swimsuit. Some are hyphenated, e.g. sister-in-law

Blending

Combining two or more words, where at least one has undergone abbreviation before being joined. E.g. kidult (kid + adult)

Backformation

Creating a new word by removing what is falsely perceived to be an affix from an existing word. E.g. Televise, which was backformed from television

Conversion of word class

Changing the class or role of a word without changing morphology. E.g. email, which was once only a noun but is not also a verb

Initialism

A form of abbreviation, formed by taking the first letters of words in a string of words and producing them as letters or a combination of letters and other symbols. The initialism cannot be pronounced as a whole word. E.g. VCE

Acronym

A form of abbreviation, formed by taking the first letter of each word in a string of words and pronouncing them as a new word. E.g. ANZAC or LOL

Contraction

A word formed by removing some letters from words and marking the missed letter/s with an apostrophe.

What is lexicology?

The study of words and how they behave within language

What are word classes?

Categorisations based on how a word behaves grammatically

What are the 10 word classes studied in EL (there are other ones we just aren't looking at them)?

Nouns, pronouns, verbs, auxiliary (primary and modal) verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions (coordinators and subordinators), determiners and interjections.

Nouns

Words that name places, people, things, qualities, ideas and conecpts. Can be proper or common.

Pronouns

Replace nouns and noun phrases (a group of words consisting of a noun and words that modify it) within a sentence. They aren't nouns themselves, instead they always refer to another element (stated or not) in a sentence.

Verbs

Actions, states or occurrences. Can take on inflectional morphemes like suffixes (for past and present tense). Future tense is not marked by inflecting a verb in english, instead the modal auxiliary verb 'will' is sometimes used.

What is an auxiliary verb and its two types?

‘Helping' verbs that support the main verb in the sentence. Two types are primary and modal.

Primary auxiliary verbs

Usually used to construct tenses not able to be conveyed with inflectional morphemes on the main verb alone. The 3 main PAVs in English are be, have and do. PAVs can also act as the main verb, but when they're acting as auxiliaries they help show expressions of time, tense, voice, continuity and the completion of an act. E.g. She WAS writing, she HAS written

Modal auxiliary verbs

Express the possibility, ability, intent, obligation or necessity of an action occurring. They modify verbs to change their mode (the state they're in). There are a fixed number of modals in English: can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must and ought. They can also be negative.

Adjectives

Words that describe or modify nouns and pronouns.

Adverbs

Words that describe, modify or qualify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs or sentences. Interrogative begin questions and are followed by a verb (Where are you going?), relative introduce subordinate clauses (This is the hill where I fell over.)

Prepositions

Express a relationship between a noun and another word, phrase or element in a sentence. It sets up a (pre) position between two elements. Includes on, in, against, etc.

Subordinators vs coordinators vs conjunctive adverbs

Subordinators - introduce subordinate clauses and link them to main clauses. E.g. because, although, if, while and since.

Coordinators - link words, phrases or clauses of equal rank. Most common types are for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so (FANBOYS)

Conjunctive adverbs - Link clauses to show equality (like coordinators), and often include a semicolon before and a comma after the adverb. E.g. also, likewise, however, next

Determiners

Words placed in front of nouns to clarify them, specify quantities or indicate possession. Includes:

> articles - specificity and definitiveness of noun (a, an, the)

> demonstratives - indicate specific nouns and informs on proximity of noun to someone (this, that)

> possessive pronouns (my, your)

> quantifiers (some, many)

Interjections

Words of phrases that express emotions and (sometimes) requests. Usually are expressive and show strong emotions. E.g. Wow or That's amazing! Can also be used in sentences.

What are word formation processes?

Metalanguage regarding the lexical processes involved in forming new words

What are 4 word formation processes?

Neologism, borrowings, commonisation and nominalisation

Neologism

A newly coined word or expression or a new usage of language. Often occur due to need to express concepts that previously had no linguistic representation (therefore can arise from technological and cultural changes). Can arise from one individual or through organic processes of language evolution

Borrowings

Words adopted from one language to another. Often occur with contact between languages and the need to express things that exist in one culture but not the other.

Commonisation

Process of proper nouns becoming common nouns. E.g. The Band-Aid brand led to everyone calling small adhesive bandages 'bandaids'

Nominalisation

Words (usually verbs or adjectives) are changed into nouns. Prevalent in academic and formal writing, and involves adding suffixes like -tion (decision from decide), -ment (achievement from achieve) and -ness (happiness from happy)

What is syntax?

The study of how words are ordered into phrases, clauses and sentences

What is a phrase?

A group of words that act as a single unit within a sentence but doesn't include both a subject and predicate (main verb and its modifiers), which a clause does. Categorised by the central word (head). In sentences, phrases can function as subjects, objects, predicates and modifiers.

What are the 5 common types of phrases?

Noun phrase - Noun and its modifiers (e.g. ‘the quick brown fox’ - fox is modified by a determiner and adjectives)

Verb phrase - main verb and its modifiers (e.g. ‘might have eaten a potato cake’ - no subject so it is a phrase still)

Prepositional phrase - begins with a preposition (e.g. on the table)

Adjective phrase - centres around an adjective with modifiers (usually adjectives or adverbs) (e.g. bright pink fluffy)

Adverb phrase - built around an adverb, functions the same way (e.g. quite slowly/ frequently)

What is a clause?

A set of phrases that must have at a minimum both a subject and predicate. Can also contain objects, complements and adverbials.

What are the two classifications of clauses?

Independent clause - forms a complete sentence

Dependent clause - part of a sentence

Subjects

The person, place, thing or idea preforming the action or being described. Typically a noun, noun phrase or pronoun. Sometimes implied, e.g. ‘get off the bench’

Predicate

Consists of main verb and its modifiers, and contains the whole of the clause after the subject. Usually split into ‘predicator’ - main verb and its modifiers, and ‘rest of the predicate’ - objects, complements, adverbials or embedded clauses attached to predicator.

E.g. In ‘The potato cakes were fried last tuesday’, ‘were fried last tuesday’ is the predicate, ‘were fried’ is the predicator and ‘last tuesday’ is the rest of the predicate

Objects

Entity affected by action of the subject. objects can be direct or indirect.

Direct - Receives verb's action directly (in 'she reads a book', 'a book' is the DO)

Indirect - Indirectly affected by the action, and typically represents to whom or for whom the action is done (in 'she gives him a book', 'him' is the IO)

Complements

One or more words that completes the meaning of the predicate. Come after copula verbs. Two main types of complement:

Subject complements - describe or identify the subject (e.g. the sky is BLUE)

Object complements - follow and modify or refer to the object (e.g. the comment made everyone FEEL AWKWARD)

What is a copular verb?

Special verbs that only appear in sentences that need complements. Most common is be (which can also be a verb or primary auxiliary). Other verbs that can be the copula verb include seem, appear, feel, become, find and grow.

Adverbials

A word (typically adverb), phrase or clause that provides optional information about how, when, where, in what manner or to what extent something happens. E.g. The cat was purring ON MY LAP; he studied JUST ENOUGH to pass the exam; OBVIOUSLY I like potato cakes

Why do we combine clauses?

In order to vary sentence structure, provide appropriate amounts of information and reduce repetition. The two main methods of combining clauses, by subordinating a clause and by coordinating a clause.

What is a sentence?

A set of words that expresses a complete thought, typically consisting of a subject and predicate. Ends with a terminal punctuation mark.

What are 4 sentence types in English?

Declarative - makes a statement (e.g. the cat is sleeping)

Interrogative - asks a question (e.g. is the cat sleeping?)

Imperative - gives a command or request (e.g. let the at sleep)

Exclamative - expresses strong emotion (e.g. the cat is so cute when it sleeps!)

How do we determine sentence structure, and what are the 5 sentence structures?

Sentence structure is determined by whether a sentence comprises a complete clause, how many clauses it has, and the conjunctions that join those clauses together. Types are simple, compound, complex, compound-complex and fragment sentences.

Simple sentences

One independent clause. E.g. the cat meows

Compound sentences

Two or more independent clauses connected by a coordinator. E.g. The dog barks and the cat meows

Complex sentences

One independent clause and at least one dependent clause connected by a subordinator. E.g. The cat meows when she is hungry

Compound-complex sentences

At least two independent clauses joined by a coordinator, and at least one dependent clause joined by a subordinator. E.g. The cat meows when she is hungry, and the dog barks

Fragment sentences

Incomplete sentences, missing either the subject or predicate but that still makes sense within its context. E.g. Not now

What is discourse?

Written or spoken texts that are longer than a sentence.

What is pragmatics?

The study of how language is used within a given context, and how context contributes to meaning

What are paralinguistic features?

Elements of communication outside the actual words used, but that are essential in conveying meaning and emotion in spoken language. Includes vocal qualities, non-verbal signals, creakiness, breathiness and other aspects of speech that can modify or accompany linguistic messages.

What are vocal effects and the two types?

Variations in voice quality that convey information or emotion. They are used to emphasise a point, express emotion or create a particular atmosphere in a conversation. Includes whispers and laughter.

Whispering

A form of speech where vocal cords don't vibrate, producing a breathy and soft sound. Often used for quiet or secretive communication.

Laughter

Vocal expression that conveys amusement, happiness or nervousness. Can signal shared understanding, ease tension or show agreement.

What is non-verbal communication and the 3 types?

Aspects of body language that contribute to meaning in communication. Includes gestures, facial expressions and eye contact.

Gestures

Movements of body parts to communicate ideas or emotions, either to complement, emphasise or substitute for verbal communication.

Facial expressions

Critical way of showing feelings and communicating empathetically.

Eye contact

looking directly into someone else's eyes to communicate attention, interest, confidence or aggression. Interpretation varies across contexts and cultures.

Creakiness

Also known as vocal fry, creakiness is a low, creaky vibration of the vocal cords. Occurs at a low pitch and can signal the end of an utterance or be used stylistically.

Breathiness

Quality of voice where there is a noticeable presence of breath in the sound. Can convey softness or intimacy.

What are semantics?

The study of understanding and meaning in communication, including both logical meaning and lexical (dictionary) meaning. Includes semantic domain, inference and the relationship between meaning and sign.

What is the relationship between meaning and sign?

The relationship between meaning and sign involves understanding how language uses signs to convey meaning. Meaning and communication occur because of the relationship between the signifier and the signified.

What is a sign and its two parts?

(Signs include words, images or sounds)

The sign consists of two parts:

Signifier - physical form of the sign, e.g. the 3 letters that make up the word cat

Signified - concept signifier represents, e.g. the idea of a small, domesticated feline

What is a semantic domain?

Specific areas of meaning and the set of words and expressions that have related meanings or cover the relevant subject matter. E.g. semantic domain of weather includes words like rain, cloudy, storm and temperature. Helps organise vocab and connect concepts.

What is inference?

The process of drawing a logical conclusion from one or more statements or facts, using existing knowledge. We derive suggested or hinted meanings. E.g. From 'the ground is wet' we may infer that it has recently rained.

Language

A meaning-making system that allows humans to communicate with each other

What are the 6 factors to consider when exploring the functions of language?

Context - when/where

Message - what

Addresser

Addressee

Contact - How (means of communication)

Code - How (common language)

What are Jakobson's 6 functions of language?

Referential, emotive, conative, poetic, phatic and metalinguistic

Referential Function

Statement of information OR fact. Language is still objective and declarative even if information is false. Describes a literal or abstract situation.

E.g. The sky is not blue; his heart is broken

Emotive Function

Expression of emotion and desire (typically addresser's), real or not. Includes highly emotive interjections.

E.g. Argh, you stepped on my toe; that was a fantastic movie; I'm not looking forward to the dentist

Conative Function

Involves directions, questions or commands designed to make addressee react. Can have intention to persuade without clear directive, such as 'It's chilly in here' - can have referential or conative function.

Poetic Function

Focuses on the message's formation and phrasing. Uses things like rhyming, alliteration, cadence and metaphor

Phatic Function

Serves a social function and is somewhat meaningless outside social context. Includes greetings, pleasantries, discourse markers and farewells.

Metalinguistic Function

Describes language itself. Allows addressor to check they've been understood or used the right code or jargon

E.g. Is a potato cake the same as a potato scallop?

Register

The way the addresser alters their language depending on the situation involving all features of language and levels of formality. Can be described using the semantic domain, manner of delivery, technicality or formality.

Tenor

Relationship between communicators, including professional roles, friendship and status. Topic of conversation plays a role in shaping tenor too. Described in term of level of consideration for a person, social distance (intimacy), status, and the attitudes and feelings the language expresses

Audience

Intended listeners or readers that shape the language we choose.

Cultural Context

Attitudes, values and beliefs of addresser and addressee (and society as a whole). E.g. a political party will make slogans and posters that align with their party's goals and ideologies

Situational context

Everything outside the text that shapes the language used. Includes field, tenor, language mode, setting and text type

Field

Subject matter under discussion. Closely linked to semantic domain and useful for register. Helps to determine level of specificity of language