Changing Family Patterns

How common is divorce in the UK and who starts it?

About 40% of marriages end in divorce, and around 7 in 10 divorce applications are made by women.

Why was divorce difficult historically, and how have the laws changed?

Divorce was expensive, legally difficult and mainly available to wealthy men, and women faced unequal legal rights and social stigma. Laws became more equal between men and women, the grounds for divorce widened (including irreconcilable differences, where a couple can no longer live together harmoniously) and the process became cheaper and easier.

How has stigma around divorce changed?

Mitchell and Goody argued divorce has become normalised and no longer carries the social shame it once did.

How has secularisation contributed to higher divorce rates?

Secularisation is the decline in the influence of religion. As religion has become less influential, religious opposition to divorce has weakened and many churches now accept remarriage.

How have rising expectations of marriage increased divorce?

Fletcher argued people now marry for love and emotional fulfilment, not economic necessity or social obligation. Couples expect emotional satisfaction, intimacy and happiness, so they are more likely to divorce if the relationship fails.

How has women's financial independence affected divorce?

More employment opportunities and welfare support mean women are less financially dependent on husbands and more able to leave unhappy marriages.

What is the feminist view of rising divorce rates?

It is positive, because it lets women escape patriarchal and unequal relationships.

What did Hochschild and Rushton find about divorce?

Hochschild argued some women find work more rewarding than home life because domestic labour and emotional work remain unequal. Rushton found women with a dual burden (paid work plus most of the housework and childcare) were more likely to seek divorce.

What is Beck's theory of individualisation?

Traditional social norms have weakened, so individuals can prioritise personal happiness and self-interest in relationships.

What did Giddens argue about modern relationships?

They are based on emotional satisfaction and are more fragile, because individuals leave when their needs are no longer met.

Why do postmodernists see relationships as unstable?

Greater choice and individual freedom make relationships less permanent and more negotiable.

What is the functionalist view of divorce?

It is negative because it disrupts social stability and family functions, although remarriage suggests people still value marriage.

What is the New Right view of divorce and lone-parent families?

High divorce rates undermine the nuclear family and contribute to welfare dependency and social problems. Lone-parent families are a concern because children, especially boys, lack male role models and may face poverty or behavioural problems.

What is the personal life perspective on divorce?

Divorce can be both harmful and beneficial, depending on the experiences of the individuals involved.

How have marriage rates changed and why?

They have generally declined since 1972. Cohabitation is now socially acceptable, women prioritise careers, and some people fear divorce or reject traditional marriage.

What are serial monogamy and remarriage?

Serial monogamy is having a series of exclusive relationships or marriages over a lifetime. Around 34% of marriages are remarriages.

How have the age and setting of marriage changed?

People marry later, with average ages around 36.5 for men and 34 for women. Most weddings now happen outside churches, often in registry offices or private venues.

What is cohabitation and how common is it?

Couples living together in a sexual relationship without being married. There are about 2.9 million heterosexual cohabiting couples in Britain, and the number is rising. Serial cohabitation is moving through multiple cohabiting relationships over time.

Why has cohabitation increased?

Stigma has declined, women are more independent and attitudes have changed. Secularisation weakened religious condemnation of cohabitation as "living in sin", and terms like "living in sin" and "illegitimate children" reflect older attitudes that have largely faded.

Why do couples cohabit instead of marrying?

Some use it as a trial marriage to test compatibility before deciding to marry. Others choose it permanently because they see it as giving more equality and freedom by avoiding traditional marital obligations.

What changes in the law affected same-sex couples?

Homosexuality was partially decriminalised in 1967. In 2002 cohabiting same-sex couples gained many of the same legal rights as heterosexual couples. Same-sex marriage became legal in 2014. About 5-10% of UK adults are estimated to be in same-sex relationships.

What did Weeks argue about same-sex relationships?

Greater acceptance has encouraged same-sex relationships to become more stable and marriage-like.

What are chosen families?

Support networks of friends and non-biological relationships treated as family, common in same-sex communities.

Why are same-sex relationships often seen as more equal, and why do some LGBTQ+ people criticise marriage?

Same-sex couples can't rely on traditional gender roles, so they negotiate domestic responsibilities more democratically. Some LGBTQ+ people criticise marriage because they believe it imposes traditional expectations that reduce flexibility and freedom.

What are one-person households and why are they increasing?

A person living alone. Around three in ten people in Britain do. Causes include later marriage, divorce, individualism and longer life expectancy. Many elderly women live alone because women outlive men and are often widowed.

What are Living Apart Together (LAT) relationships?

Committed couples who keep separate homes, often to protect independence, privacy or career flexibility, or to avoid full commitment.

Why are births outside marriage increasing?

Almost half of all children are now born outside marriage, because cohabitation is more accepted and there is less stigma around unmarried parents.

Why are women having children later?

The average age of first-time mothers has risen to around 30, because women prioritise education, careers and financial stability first.

How has fertility changed and why is childlessness increasing?

The fertility rate has fallen from about 2.95 children per woman in the 1960s to below replacement level today. Some women choose careers or lifestyle over children, while others face economic pressures or delayed relationships.

What is a lone-parent family and how common are they?

One parent living with dependent children. They make up around 24% of UK families.

Who heads most lone-parent families and why?

About 90% are headed by mothers. Women are often granted custody because society sees them as naturally nurturing, and some women choose single parenthood because they feel able to raise children independently.

Why have lone-parent families increased?

Divorce, less stigma, women's independence and changing attitudes. Fewer are now caused by the death of a parent, because healthcare and life expectancy have improved.

Why are children in lone-parent families more likely to experience poverty?

A single income is often lower, and balancing childcare with work is difficult.

What did Cashmore find about lone parents?

Some relied on welfare support to maintain independent households.

What is Murray's New Right view of lone-parent families?

Welfare benefits create a dependency culture (long-term reliance on benefits instead of work) by encouraging people to have children without financial stability. He proposed reducing welfare benefits for lone parents to discourage dependency.

How do critics challenge Murray?

Many lone parents work, childcare is expensive, and women still face pay inequality.

What is a stepfamily and why are they increasing?

A family formed when one or both partners bring children from previous relationships into a new family. They make up over 10% of families with dependent children. Rising divorce and separation create more opportunities for re-partnering and remarriage.

Why are stepfamilies more vulnerable to poverty?

Parents may have maintenance payments, childcare costs or reduced incomes from previous relationships.

What are divided loyalties in stepfamilies?

Children may feel torn between their biological parents and stepparents, creating emotional tension.

What did Ribbons McCarthy argue about stepfamilies?

There is no single model for stepfamily life, because roles and expectations remain unclear.

What patterns exist in Black family structures?

Black families are statistically more likely to be lone-parent households, often headed by mothers. Some link this to the historical effects of slavery, while others stress independence and strong female roles. The statistics may be misleading, because many individuals are in stable Living Apart Together relationships and aren't entirely alone.

What characteristics are common in Asian families?

Larger households, stronger extended kin networks and greater respect for elders. They are not always extended families: many are nuclear but keep close geographical and emotional ties with relatives.

What is the dispersed extended family?

Willmott's term for relatives who live separately but keep close contact and support each other.

What is the beanpole family?

Brannon's term for long, thin family structures with several generations but few siblings, cousins and other horizontal relatives. They have increased because of longer life expectancy and smaller family sizes.

How do working-class and middle-class kinship networks differ?

Working-class families more often exchange practical domestic help, while middle-class families more often exchange financial support.

How are family obligations gendered?

Women are more likely to provide emotional care and support for relatives, while men are more associated with financial help.