VCE Psych U3 AOS 2

learning

relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience

conditioning

the process of learning associations between a stimulus in the environment and a behavioural response

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

any stimulus that doesn't stimulate a response

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

any stimulus that constantly produces a particular naturally occurring, automatic response

Unconditioned response (UCR)

the response that occurs automatically when UCS is presented. It is a reflexive, involuntary response.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

the stimulus that was initially neutral, but eventually triggers a response similar to UCS

Conditioned Response (CR)

a learned response that is produced by CS. It occurs after repeated association between NS and UCS

Before Conditioning

the UCS produces the UCR and the NS produces no response

During conditioning

NS is presented with the UCS to develop an association between the two.

After conditioning

after association with the UCS, the NS becomes the CS and produces a response similar to the UCR, which is known as the CR

what may happen after conditioning?

stimulus generalisation or stimulus discrimination

stimulus generalisation

another stimulus similar to the CS that may also trigger a CR

stimulus discrimination

only the CS and no similar stimulus triggers the CR

how to get the CR to stop or decrease after conditioning?

extinction or spontaneous recovery

extinction

if you present the CS alone, repeatedly, the strength of it will decrease over time

spontaneous recovery

the CR may still occasionally and temporarily reappear

operant conditioning

a form of learning where the consequences of a particular response or behaviour determine the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated

Antecedent

an event or stimulus that is present just before the target behaviour occurs

Behaviour (operant conditioning)

The voluntary response that occurs when the stimulus is present

consenquence

The response that follows the behaviour (can strengthen or weaken the likelihood of the behaviour occurring again)

Reinforcement

any event or stimulus that INCREASES the likelihood of a behaviour occurring again due to desirable consequences

positive reinforcement

a desirable stimulus is added in order to increase the likelihood of the behaviour occurring again

negative reinforcement

an unpleasant stimulus is removed in order to increase the likelihood of the behaviour occurring again

punishment

consequences that DECREASE the likelihood of future behaviour

positive punishment

an unpleasant stimulus is added in order to decrease the likelihood of a behaviour occurring again

negative punishment

a desirable stimulus is removed in order to decrease the likelihood of a behaviour occurring again

observational learning

a social-cognitive process that occurs when someone watches a model's actions and consequences to guide their future behaviour

ARRMR of Observational Learning

attention, retention, reproduction, motivation, reinforcement

attention (ARRMR)

observer must actively watch the model

retention (ARRMR)

observer must remember the model’s behaviour

reproduction (ARRMR)

observer can only reproduce the behaviour if they have the physical or mental ability to do so

motivation (ARRMR)

observer must want to imitate the behaviour

• intrinsic or extrinsic

reinforcement (ARRMR)

influences motivation to reproduce the observed behaviour and increases the likelihood of reproduction in the future

types of reinforcement in observational learning

• vicarious reinforcement: model is praised for the behaviour and the observer sees this

• personal/internal reinforcement: observer receives satisfying consequences when the behaviour is completed

• external reinfocement: observer is encouraged or praised for copying the behaviour

8 ways of learning

a holistic framework to help understand and incorporate Aboriginal knowledge perspectives through Aboriginl learning processes

story-sharing (in relation Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures)

approaching learning through narrative

learning maps (in relation Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures)

approaching learning through explicitly mapping/visualising processes

non-verbal (in relation Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures)

using movement to share, connect or express knowledge

symbols and images (in relation Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures)

using images and metapohors to understand concepts and content

land links (in relation Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures)

place based learning, linking content to local land and place

non-linear (in relation Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures)

producing innovations and understanding by thinking laterally

deconstruct/reconstruct (in relation Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures)

looking at a concept as a whole before breaking it down into parts to study in detail

community links (in relation Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures)

a learner centring local viewpoints and applying learning to benefit their mob or community

memory

an information processing system that actively receives, organises, stores and recovers info

encoding

converting raw sensory information into a form that can be processed by the brain

• must pay attention to occur

storage

retaining encoded information for a period of time

retrieval

accessing and diverting information from long term memory to short term memory so it can be used/manipulated

memory store

a site where information can be stored temporarily or permanently

what is the purpose of sensory memory?

The entry point of memory where new sesnory information is stored for a bried amount of time.

Used as a filtering procress to ensure we don't get overwhelmed by incoming information.

what is the capacity of sensory memory?

unlimited capacity

what is the duration of sensory memory?

0.2 - 4 seconds

iconic memory (subcomponent of sensory memory)

visual sensory information, which can retain in it's sensory form from 0.2-0.5 seconds

echoic memory (subcomponent of sensory memory)

auditory sensory information which is stored for a short amount of time (3-4 seconds)

Role of short term memory

Memory system which allows us to actively work on and manipulate information.

capacity of short term memory

7 +/- 2 items

Duration of short term memory

12 - 30 seconds

displacement

when information that’re held in short-term memory are pushed out and replaced by new,

incoming information

decay

the fading and removal of an item from a memory store due to inattention or lack of use

chunking (solution to displacement)

grouping or combining smaller units of info into one bigger piece of info to increase the likelihood of retaining info. in STM

rehersal (solution to decay)

Rehearsal is when information is consciously manipulated to keep it in short-term memory for longer or to transfer it to long-term memory.

maintenance rehersal

repeating info. over and over to help retain it in STM and potentially increase the chance of it being encoded into LTM

elaborative rehersal

linking new info. to existing info. to increase the chance of it being encoded into LTM

Long term memory

relatively permanent memory store for info that has been rehersed and encoded from STM

capacity of LTM

potentially unlimited

duration of LTM

relatively permanent

strengths of the multi-store mdoel

• provides a clear framework for understanding how memory is organised and the processes involved

• identifies that there are different stores of memory

• explains that memory stores vary in capacity and duration

limitations of multi store model

• often considered to be oversimplified model

• suggests STM is a single store, contradicts more recent proposals

• does not consider how other factors can influence the encoding of info from STM to LTM

• does not account for individual differences in memory

explicit memory

• facts or past experiences

• can be communicated verbally well

• requires consious awareness to be retreieved

episodic (explicit) memory

memory of specific or personal experiences

semantic (explicit) memory

memory of facts, worldly knowledge or general knowldge

implicit memory

• memory of stored routines and emotional responses

• communicated by showing - difficult to verbalised

• does not require conscious or intentional retreival

procedural (implicit) memory

knowledge of skills, habits or actions. Often takes practice

classically conditioned reflex/emotional response (implicit) memory

reflexes or a learned emotional reaction acquired through classical conditioning

What type of memory is the hippocampus involved in

explicit memory

What is the hippocampus role

• Encodes, consolidates and retrieves explicit memories

• Transfers new encoded memories to relevent parts of the brain

what would happen if the hippocampus was damaged

Unable to transfer new memories to the LTM and unable to form new memories after the damage occured

What type of memory is the amygdala involved in?

Explicit memories, classically conditioned (emotion related), implicit memories

What is the amygdala's role

• Memory storage influenced by initiation of FFF response and release of stress hormones

• works with the hippocampus to encode and consoldiate the emotional component of explicit memories

• helps in retrieval of emotional content associated with explicit memories

• enocdes implicit memories to do with emotions

what could happen if the amygdala is damaged

• unable to fear new objects due to conditioning

• innate fear to unconditioned stimuli

• not properly consolidate new emotional experienced into LTM

What type of LTM is the neocortex involved in

explicit memories

eventual storage of implict procedural (these are temporarily stored in the cerebellum)

What is the role of the neocortex

• involved in high order mental processes

• stores explicit memories for a long time

what could happen if neocortex was damaged?

• impair both stm and ltm - affecting the ability to learn new info and recall old memories

• the severity and specific type of memory impairment depend on the location and extent of the damage

what type of LTM is basal ganglia involved with

Implicit - procedural memory (habit forming)

What are the functions of the basal ganglia?

• main role is encoding and consolidating and retrieval of implicit procedural memory (specifically habits)

• works to form habits by associating movement with reward or reinforcement

• planning and control of fine motor control relating to a sequence of goal directed behaviour so it can be performed in a fluid manner

what might happen if basal ganglia is damaged

• may cause problems controlling speech, movement and posture eg. parkinsons and huntingtons disease

• may cause problems with incentive motivation - issues forming habits

type of ltm the cerebellum is involved in

implicit - learnt classically conditioned reflexes involving movement (not fear)

implicit procedural

description of role of cerebullum

• encoding and temporary storage of implicit procedural memories for motor skills - created by classical conditioning

• coordinating fine muscle movements and regulating balance and posture

what would happen if cerebellum is damaged

• unable to develop certain conditioned reflexes

• may not be able to learn or recall sequences of fine specific movement

autobiographical memory

a memory system consisting of episodes recalled from a person's life based on a mixture of episodic and semantic memory

autobiographical events

past experiences we have personally lived

episodic future thinking

• a process of active construction of events that have not yet occured based on past events and knowledge

• episodic probides episodic memory eg. people, objects, locations

• semantic provides a context or framework

Alzheimer's disease

an incurable, progressive neurodegenerative disease that results in cognitive decline and memory loss

symptoms of alzheimers

• gradual severe memory loss, confusion, impaired attention, disorderd thinking, decline in social skills, personality changes

• initially impaired explicit memory and eventially decline of both explicit and implicit

What are the biological causes of Alzheimer's

• beta amyloid proteins builds up to form amyloid plaques

• tau protein builds up inside the neuron causing neurofibrillary tangles

• lack of memory neurotransmitter acetylcholine

• brain atrophy

what causes amyloid plaques and what do they do

• build up of beta amyloid

• abnormal build up forms plaques between synapeses of neurons so interferes with neural communication

what are neurofibrillary tangles caused by and what do they do

• caused by tau proten building up inside the neuron

• assocdiated with cell death

• inteferes with the flow of info within and between neurons - disrupting communucation

structure affected by atrophy

• the hippocampus is one of the first structures affected by atrophy - new explicit memories cannot be encoded and consolidated - anterograde amnesia

• loss of neurons spead to cerebral cortex - loss of stored explicit long term memories

• loss of capacity for episodic future thinking

• damage extends to hind brain

aphantasia

a phsycial condition characterised by the inability to form voluntary visual imagery despite a person having intact semantic memory and visual perception

causes of aphantasia

theories include areas of the brain involved in imagery may be underactive, people may experience visual imagery but can't access the image in their conscious

cogenital aphantasia

aphantasia present from birth