A-Level AQA Psychology - Social Influence

What is conformity?

A change in a persons behaviour or opinions as a result of real or imagined pressure from a person or group of people.

What was the aim of Asch’s study?

To see if people would conform even in clear/unambiguous situations.

What was the method of Asch’s study?

• 50 American male student volunteers took part in what they thought was a vision test.

• The experiment was carried out in a lab whereby each group was made up of between 5 to 7 confederates and one naïve participant (groups of 6 to 8); they were always seated second to last or last.

• Each person in the group was asked to judge which comparison line matched the standard line.

• In the first 6 trials all confederates gave the right answers. In the next 12 critical trials all confederates were instructed to give the same wrong answer. Total of 18 trials.

What were the findings of Asch’s study?

• On average, the naive ppt agreed with confederates’ incorrect answers 37% of the time (around 4/12 times), with 75% conforming to at least one wrong answer.

• There were individual differences: 25% of the ppts never gave a wrong answer (never conformed)

What 3 variables affect conformity?

• Unanimity.

• Task difficulty.

• Group size.

What was the group size variable of Asch’s follow-up study about?

• Asch varied the number of confederates/stooges (from having 1 confederate to 15 confederates (so group size went from 2 (1 real, 1 fake), to 16 (1 real, 15 fake)

• Asch found a curvilinear relationship between group size and conformity rate​

• With 3 confederates, conformity rose to 31.8%. There is no need for a majority of more than three.

• Suggests that most people are sensitive to the views of others because just one or two confederates was enough to sway opinion

What was the unanimity variable of Asch’s follow-up study about?

• Asch wondered if the presence of a non-conforming (dissenter) person would affect the naive participant’s conformity​

• To do this, he introduced a confederate who disagreed with the others (sometimes gave the right answer, sometimes not)

• The rate of conformity decreased to less than ¼ of the level it was when the majority was unanimous​ (down by 25%)

• This was true regardless of whether they were right or wrong!!

• The presence of the dissenter allowed the naive participant to behave more independently

What was the task difficulty variable of Asch’s follow-up study about?

• Asch increased the difficulty by making the stimulus line and the comparison lines more similar​

• Conformity increased​

• It might be that the situation is more ambiguous when it becomes harder- unclear to the participants what the right answer is​

• In these situations it is natural to look at other people for guidance and to assume that they are right and you are wrong- Informational Social Influence (discussed later)​

How did group size affect conformity?

It increased by 31.8%.

Why did group size affect conformity?

It is suggested that different sizes have some impact up to n=3. So only up to a certain point (we are heavily influenced by a group as just one or two people was enough to sway opinion).

How did task difficulty affect conformity?

It increased.

Why did task difficulty affect conformity?

Confidence in more difficult tasks decreases, so you look to others for answers; ISI?

How did unanimity affect conformity?

It decreased by 25%.

Why did unanimity affect conformity?

If the whole group are unanimous then conformity will increase. If a dissenter supports the participant and increases their confidence that they are correct, conformity will decrease by 25%.

What is a strength of Asch’s research? supporting research.

P: One strength of Asch’s research is support from other studies for the effects of task difficulty.

EE: Lucas et al. (2006): ppts asked to solve “easy” and “hard” maths problems. Ppts conformed more often to the incorrect answers given by the confederates when the math problems were more difficult (support for task difficulty affecting conformity).

L: This shows Asch was correct in claiming that task difficulty is one variable that affects conformity.

What is a limitation of Asch’s research? Validity.

P: One limitation of Asch’s research was issues with his sample.

EE: Gender bias – male sample my not represent female behaviour (Neto (1995): women might be more conformist due to more concern for social relationships and acceptance).

Volunteer sample may not represent that of wider population; ppts may be more curious & likely try to please the researcher which then affects generalisability.

Little cultural application: Smith et al 2006; average conformity rate for collectivist cultures (Asia, S. America) was much higher (37%) than individualist cultures (US, Europe) (25%), Markus & Kitayama (1991) explain this is because collectivist cultures view conformity more favourably.

L: These issues reduce the population validity of Asch’s research, as his findings may not generalise beyond the narrow sample he used.

What is a limitation of Asch’s research? alternative explanations.

P: One limitation of Asch’s research is that conformity is more complex than Asch suggested.

•EE: Lucas et al. found that conformity is more complex than Asch suggested. Lucas et al. found that individuals with high confidence in their maths abilities conformed less on hard tasks than those with low ability.

L:So, there are individual differences that interact with situational variables such as task difficulty that Asch did not consider.

What is a limitation of Asch’s research? Life Applicability.

P:  One limitation of Asch’s research is the lack of real-world applicability.

EE: The  artificial situation and task (identifying lines in a lab) lead to high demand characteristics – ppts knew they were in a study so may conform due to this. Moreover, Fiske (2014) argued that Asch’s groups were not very “groupy” (they were strangers and not friends)

L: This suggests the findings don’t generalise to real-life situations.

What is a limitation of Asch’s research? ethical issues.

• Deception (about the aim and procedure: not a vision test, other ppts are not genuine) and lack of protection from psychological harm: (e.g. stress, anxiety, humiliation).

• C/A: benefits outweigh the costs in this study: This knowledge could help avoid mindless destructive conformity by showing how people can be more independent in their behaviour. 

What are the 3 types of conformity?

• Internalisation.

• Identification.

• Compliance.

What is compliance?

Involves simply going along with others in public, but privately not changing personal opinions/behaviours. Compliance only results in a superficial change. It also means that a particular behaviour or opinion stops as soon as group pressure stops.

What is identification?

Sometimes we conform to the opinions/ behaviour of a group because there is something about that group we value. We identify with the group, so we want to be a part of it. This identification may mean we publically change our opinions/ behaviour to be accepted by the group, even if we don’t privately agree with everything the group stands for.

What is internalisation?

It occurs when a person genuinely accepts the group norms. This results in private as well as public change of opinions/behaviour. This change is usually permanent as the attitudes have been internalised. This change of opinion persists even in the absence of group members.

What is informational social influence (ISI)?

• ISI is based on the idea that when we are uncertain about what behaviours/beliefs are right/wrong, we look to others for guidance.

• We agree with opinions of the majority as we want to be right.

• ISI is most likely to happen in novel situations or situations that are ambiguous (so there is no clear right answer).

• It also occurs in stressful situations where decisions have to be made quickly.

• Another reason why it may occur is when the person (or group) may be seen as an expert.

• This may lead to internalisation.

• It is a cognitive process because it is to do with what you think.

What is normative social influence (NSI)?

• Normative social influence is about norms i.e. what is ‘typical’ behaviour for a social group.

• We want to gain social approval and agree with others to be liked.

• NSI is most likely to happen in situations with strangers where individuals are fearful of rejection and don’t want to appear foolish.

• People would rather seek to gain social approval than be rejected. As a result, NSI is an emotional rather than cognitive process - it is to do with how you feel.

• This may lead to compliance.

What is a strength of NSI? Research support.

P: One strength of NSI is that evidence supports it as an explanation for conformity.
E: Asch interviewed his participants, and some said they conformed because they felt self-conscious giving the correct answer and they were afraid of disapproval. Conformity dropped to 12.5% when writing down their answers.
E: This is because giving answers privately meant there was no normative group pressure.
L: This shows that at least some conformity is due to a desire not to be rejected by the group for disagreeing with them.

What is a strength of ISI? Research support.

P: One strength of ISI is that evidence supports it as an explanation for conformity.
E: Lucas et al found that participants conformed more often to incorrect answers they were given when the maths problems were difficult.
E: This is because when the problems were easy the participants 'knew their own minds' but when the problems were hard the situation became ambiguous. The participants did not want to be wrong and therefore relied on the answers they were given.
L: This shows that ISI is a valid explanation of conformity because the results are what ISI would predict.

C/A:
It is often unclear where ISI or NSI is at work is research studies. It is hard to separate them and both processors probably operate together in most real-world conformity situations.

What is a limitation of NSI? Individual differences.

P: One limitation is that NSI does not predict conformity in every case.
E: McGhee and Teevan found that people who are nAffiliators are more likely to conform.
E: This is because these people have a strong desire to be liked by others. This shows that NSI underlies conformity for some people more than others.
L: There are individual differences in conformity that cannot fully be explained by one general theory of situational pressures.

What question was Zimbardo trying to answer with his experiment?

Do prison guards behave brutally because they are cruel/ have a sadistic personality (disposition) people or is it as a result of the situation that they are in?

What are social roles?

The ‘parts’ people play as members of various social groups. Everyday examples include parent, child, student, passenger etc. There are accompanied by expectations we and others have of what is appropriate behaviour in each role, for example caring, obedient, industrious etc.

What was the aim of the Stanford Prison Experiment?

To see if individuals will conform to social roles.

What was the method of the Stanford Prison Experiment?

• 21 male students volunteers who tested as “emotionally stable” after pre screening were selected​.

• The students were randomly assigned to play the role of the guard or the prisoner. Healthy (psychological testing to ensure).

• Local police recruited to ‘arrest’ prisoners.

• Blindfolded, strip searched and deloused!!!

• The basement of Stanford University, California.

• Uniforms [created loss of personal identity (de-individuation) making everyone more likely to conform]: ​

• Prisoners were given a loose smock to wear and a cap and they were identified by their number​.

• The guards had their own uniform, with a wooden club, handcuffs and mirror shades.​

• The guards were given 16 rules which the prisoners had to follow.

• Talking to the prison warden (Zimbardo himself)​.

• Study was supposed to last 2 weeks.

What were the results of the Stanford Prison Experiment?

• The guards took their role enthusiastically from day one, so much so that after 2 days the prisoners rebelled​.

• Prisoners ripped their uniforms and shouted at the guards, who retaliated with fire extinguishers​.

• The guards used ‘divide-and-rule’ tactics: harassed the prisoners constantly, woke them in the middle of the night, performed headcounts, administer punishments etc. ​

• Once their rebellion was put down they became depressed and anxious​.

• 1 prisoner allowed to leave due to signs of psychological disturbance.

• 2 more released on fourth day.

• One prisoner went on a hunger strike (and was then put ‘in the hole’).

• Zimbardo had to stop the experiment after 6 days of the intended 14!​

What is the conclusion of the Stanford Prison Experiment?

• Social roles appear to have strong influence on individuals’ behaviour:  the guards became brutal and the prisoners submissive.

• The "prison environment" was an important factor in creating these behaviours.

• ​Roles were very easily adopted by participants as everyone found themselves behaving as if they were in a prison rather than a psychological study [including Zimbardo]​.