SOC 202 Final Exam Textbook Terms

individualistic explanation

Tendency to attribute people’s achievements and failures to their personal qualities

When someone gets an A —> “they’re smart & hardworking”

When somone fails —> “they didn’t study enough” ; “they lack motivation”

focuses on the person not the situation

macrolevel

Way of examining human life that focuses on the broad social forces and structural features of society that exist above the level of individual people

focuses on large scale social forces & structures

microlevel

Way of examining human life that focuses on the immediate, everyday experiences of individuals

focuses on individual behavior & interactions

sociological imagination

Ability to see the impact of social forces on our private lives

like how we analysze real-world problems in class

sociology

The systematic study of human societies

achieved status

Social position acquired through our own efforts or accomplishments or taken on voluntarily

ex: becoming a dr, being a student athete, getting a job or promotion

ascribed status

Social position acquired at birth or taken on involuntarily later in life

you've been assigned since birth (ex: race, ethnicity, gender, age, family background)

conflict perspective

Theoretical perspective that views the structure of society as a source of inequality that always benefits some groups at the expense of other groups

ex: wealth gap between rich and poor, discrimination

culture

Language, values, beliefs, rules, behaviors, and artifacts that characterize a society

globalization

Process through which people’s lives all around the world become economically, politically, environmentally, and culturally interconnected

group

Set of people who interact more or less regularly and who are conscious of their identity as a unit

in-groups

The groups to which we belong and toward which we feel a sense of loyalty

a group YOU identify with and feel you belong to (ex: volleyball team, robotics team, friend group, family)

latent function

Unintended, unrecognized consequences of activities that help some part of the social system

ex: school’s manifest function = education vs. school’s latent function = making friends, learning social skills, finding a future partner

manifest functions

Intended, obvious consequences of activities designed to help some part of the social system

ex: school’s manifest function = education vs. school’s latent function = making friends, learning social skills, finding a future partner

norm

Culturally defined standard or rule of conduct

Its a shared expectation (ex: saying please and thank you, standing in line, raising your hand before you speak)

Organization

Large, complex network of positions created for a specific purpose and characterized by a hierarchical division of labor

bureaucracy

Large hierarchical organization governed by formal rules and regulations and having clearly specified work tasks

a type of organization that runs on structure, rules, & clear roles to keep things orderly (ex: government)

-hiarchy: clear chain of commands (bosses, subordinates)

-division of labor: everyone has a specific task

-rules & procedures: standardized way of doing things

sub to the broader term, organization

out-groups

The groups to which we don’t belong and toward which we feel a certain amount of antagonism

a group YOU do not identify with or feel separate from (based on identity & feelings)

ex: rival schools (UNC, VT), competing team, standers outside of your circle

primary group

Collection of individuals who are together for a relatively long period, whose members have direct contact with and feel emotional attachment to one another

small, close, and personal (based on relationship) — strong emotional bonds (ex: family, close friends)

role

Set of expectations—rights, obligations, behaviors, duties—associated with a particular status

ex:

student role: attend class, do HW, participate

teacher role: teach, grade, guide students

parent role: care and provide support for their children

role conflict

Frustration people feel when the demands of one role they are expected to fulfill clash with the demands of another role

ex: a student who also works part time struggles to study and meet job demands

role strain

Situations in which people lack the necessary resources to fulfill the demands of a particular role

ex: a mother not being able to provide for her kids

secondary group

Relatively impersonal collection of individuals that is established to perform a specific task

larger, more formal, & goal-oriented — less personal/emotional and often temporary

ex: coworkers, classmates

social institution

Stable set of roles, statuses, groups, and organizations—such as the institution of education, family, politics, religion, health care, or the economy—that provides a foundation for behavior in some major area of social life

society

A population of people living in the same geographic area who share a culture and a common identity and whose members are subject to the same political authority

status

Any named social position that people can occupy

who you are (2 types, ascribed and achieved status)

structural-functionalist perspective

Theoretical perspective that posits that social institutions are structured to maintain stability and order in society

symbol

Something used to represent or stand for something else

symbolic interactionism

Theoretical perspective that explains society and social structure through an examination of the microlevel, personal, day-to-day exchanges of people as individuals, pairs, or groups

ex:

waving your hands means hi or bye (what society agreed on)

a ride light means stop (what society agreed on)

the teacher walks into the classroom and everyone gets quiet; the teacher symbolizes authority so students adjust their behavior

value

Standard of judgment by which people decide on desirable goals and outcomes

what society considers important

-honesty is valued in many cultures

-respect for elders

-freedom and equality

-hard work & ambition

social structure

Framework of society—social institutions, organizations, groups, statuses and roles, cultural beliefs, and institutionalized norms—that adds order and predictability to our private lives

“framework” of society that guides what ppl are expected to do (keeps society organized & predictable)

analysis of existing or secondary data

Type of unobtrusive research that relies on data gathered earlier by someone else for some other purpose

content analysis

Form of unobtrusive research that studies the content of recorded messages, such as books, speeches, poems, songs, television shows, websites, and advertisements

think of the analysis done in AP Lang & U.S. History

dependent variable

Variable that is assumed to be caused by, or to change as a result of, the independent variable

empirical research

Research that operates from the ideological position that questions about human behavior can be answered only through controlled, systematic observations in the real world

the belief that you must use real-world evidence and careful observations to understand human behavior; you can’t just make/think of something that is true, you must test it with some form of data to draw conclusions

experiment

Research method designed to elicit some sort of behavior, typically conducted under closely controlled laboratory circumstances

field research

Type of social research in which the researcher observes events as they actually occur

2 types —> nonparticipant observation & participant observation

historical analysis

Form of social research that relies on existing historical documents as a source of data

focuses on the past, how things changed over time

hypothesis

Researchable prediction that specifies the relationship between two or more variables

“I think that this will happen”

incorrigible proposition

Unquestioned cultural belief that cannot be proved wrong no matter what happens to dispute it

assumed to be true and not tested

independent variable

Variable presumed to cause or influence the dependent variable

indicator

Measurable event, characteristic, or behavior commonly thought to reflect a particular concept

a sign or measure that shows the presence of something abstract

nonparticipant observation

Form of field research in which the researcher observes people without directly interacting with them and without letting them know that they are being observed

participant observation

Form of field research in which the researcher interacts with subjects, sometimes hiding his or her identity

probabilistic

Capable only of identifying those forces that have a high likelihood, but not a certainty, of influencing human action

the idea that “this usually happens” and not “this always happens”

ex: people with higher education are more likely to get higher paying jobs” —> this is probabilistic bc not everyone with education gets a high paying job but the chances are higher overall

qualitative research

Sociological research based on nonnumeric information (text, written words, phrases, symbols, observations) that describes people, actions, or events in social life quantitative research: Sociological research based on the collection of numeric data that uses precise statistical analysis

reactivity

A problem associated with certain forms of research in which the very act of intruding into people’s lives may influence the phenomenon being studied

the participants change their behavior or responses bc they know that they are part of a study

representative

Typical of the whole population being studied

where a sample is representative if it accurately reflects the larger population —> representative = how well your sample matches the larger population

-if you’re studying all HS students but your sample is only athletes —> not represensative

-if your sample includes students from different grade levels, backgrounds, and interests —> representative

sample

Subgroup chosen for a study because its characteristics approximate those of the entire population

just a group of people you study

self-fulfilling prophecy

Assumption or prediction that in itself causes the expected event to occur, thus seeming to confirm the prophecy’s accuracy

belief or expectation ends up becoming real b/c ppl act as if its true

social construction of reality

Process through which the members of a society discover, make known, reaffirm, and alter a collective version of facts, knowledge, and “truth”

ex: money is just paper, but society agreed that it has value

ex: gender roles, how men and women should act

spurious relationship

A false association between two variables that is actually due to the effect of some third variable

ex: ice cream sales go up and crime rates go up at the same time. It might look like icecream causes crime but the 3rd variable is that it is hot where people buy icecream to cool and ppl are outside more therefore more crime opportunities

survey

Form of social research in which the researcher asks subjects a series of questions verbally, online, or on paper

theory

Set of statements or propositions that seeks to explain or predict a particular aspect of social life

“Here’s why this happens, based on evidence”

unobtrusive research

Research technique in which the researcher, without direct contact with the subjects, examines the evidence of social behavior that people create or leave behind

ex: analysis of existing or secondary data, content analysis

cultural relativism

Principle that people’s beliefs and activities should be interpreted in terms of their own culture

“understand before you judge”

ex: eating insects is normal in some cultures, where cultures relativism says we should understand it in that context rather than judging its weird

variable

Any characteristic, attitude, behavior, or event that can take on two or more values or attributes

something that varies between ppl or situations; its what researchers study and compare

ex: age, income, education level, test scores, gender

ethnocentrism

Tendency to judge other cultures using one’s own as a standard

folkway

Informal norm that is mildly punished when violated

everyday customs, habits, or informal rules that people follow where if you do not it is seen as rude: saying pls/TY, dressing appropriately, handshakes, chewing with mouth close (basically manners)

heteronormative culture

Culture in which heterosexuality is accepted as the normal, taken-forgranted mode of sexual expression

people are expected to date, marry, or form families with the opposite-sex

institutionalized norm

Pattern of behavior within existing social institutions that is widely accepted in a society

a norm that is so established that it becomes part of how society officially operates based on institutions

major institutions include schools, government, family, workplaces, laws &policies

ex: going to school from 5-18 y/o —> built into education and law

ex: working a 9-5 job schedule where most workplaces & economic systems are structured around it

material culture

Artifacts of a society that represent adaptations to the social and physical environment

physical objects, resources, and spaces that people create and use to define their culture (ex: fasion trends)

mores

Highly codified, formal, systematized norms that bring severe punishment when violated

rules about right and wrong behavior that society takes seriously — if you break them, ppl do not just think its rude (folkway), they see it as wrong or unacceptable (ex: murder, cheating, stealing)

nonmaterial culture

Knowledge, beliefs, customs, values, morals, and symbols that are shared by members of a society and that distinguish the society from others

-not physical

-ideas, beliefs, and rules that guide & make a society

sanction

Social response that punishes or otherwise discourages violations of a social norm

used to enforce norms: includes fines, fail, failing a class, social disapproval

subculture

Values, behaviors, and artifacts of a group that distinguish its members from the larger culture

a group within society that is different from the mainstream culture, but still apart of it

ex: goth/emo, amish communities, gamers, weebs

agents of socialization

Various individuals, groups, and organizations that influence the socialization process

-they help you learn how to function in your culture

-family teaches language, basic norms, and values

-religion provides moral guidance

anticipatory socialization

Process through which people acquire the values and orientations found in statuses they will likely enter in the future

-when a person learns and practices the norms, values, and behaviors of a role they expect to take on in the future

-preparation

collectivist culture

Culture in which personal accomplishments are less important in the formation of identity than group membership

“we before me” concept —> popular in Asian culture

game stage

Stage in the development of self during which a child acquires the ability to take the role of a group or community (the generalized other) and conform their behavior to broad societal expectations

in play stage: a child pretends to play soccer by running around

in game stage: the child understands they have a role on the team and rules are supposed to be followed

gender

Psychological, social, and cultural aspects of masculinity and femininity

sex = biology (male/female)

gender = society’s expectations about women and men and others

generalized other

Perspective of the larger society and its constituent values and attitudes

society’s voice in your head that tells you what’s normal/expected

identity

Essential aspect of who we are, consisting of our sense of self, gender, race, ethnicity, and religion

made up of specific labels and roles that define you in society (student, athlete, sis/bro, American)

individualist culture

Culture in which personal accomplishments are a more important component of one’s self-concept than group membership

ex: Americans

looking-glass self

Sense of who we are that is defined by incorporating the reflected appraisals of others

we see ourselves thru the reflection of how others view us

play stage

Stage in the development of self during which a child develops the ability to take a role, but only from the perspective of one person at a time

pretend play (see difference with game stage)

reflexive behavior

Behavior in which the person initiating an action is the same as the person toward whom the action is directed

thinking about your actions before or while you act

resocialization

Process of learning new values, norms, and expectations when an adult leaves an old role and enters a new one

learning new ways of life, leaving the old you behind

ex: joining the military

role taking

Ability to see oneself from the perspective of others and to use that perspective in formulating one’s own behavior

the ability to put yourself in someone else’s shoes and see the situation from their POV

self

Unique set of traits, behaviors, and attitudes that distinguishes one person from the next; the active source and passive object of behavior

-overall sense of who you are — your awareness of yourself as an individual

-how you see yourself as a person

sex

Biological maleness or femaleness

socialization

Process through which one learns how to act according to the rules and expectations of a particular culture

process of learning how to be apart of society

total institution

Place where individuals are cut off from the wider society for an appreciable period and where together they lead an enclosed, formally administered life

completely isolated from the outside world (under strict rules)

tracking

Grouping of students into different curricular programs, or tracks, based on an assessment of their academic abilities

-placing students on diff “paths” based on ability or achievement

ex: reading placement groups, regular vs. AP students

back stage

Area of social interaction away from the view of an audience, where people can rehearse and rehash their behavior

you drop your performance and be your natural self (ex: w/ family vs. w/ friends)

dramaturgy

Study of social interaction as theater, in which people (“actors”) project images (“play roles”) in front of others (“audience”)

the idea that life is a stage, and ppl perform roles for others

front stage

Area of social interaction where people perform and work to maintain appropriate impressions

the public performance area (ex: job interview, greeting new ppl/guest)

impression formation

The process by which we define others based on observable cues such as age, ascribed status characteristics such as race and gender, individual attributes such as physical appearance, and verbal and nonverbal expressions

tendency to judge ppl, especially when you meet them for the first time

impression management

Act of presenting a favorable public image of oneself so that others will form positive judgments

-how you perform to influence others’ opinions

-see your friends parents for the first time so you dress well and smile

-”manage ur social media page”

stigma

Deeply discrediting characteristic that is viewed as an obstacle to competent or morally trustworthy behavior

-a social mark that makes someone seem less acceptable

ex: mental illness labels people as weak or unstable

endogamy

Marriage/intimate relations within one’s social group

exogamy

Marriage/intimate relations outside one’s social group

extended family

Family unit consisting of the parent–child nuclear family and other relatives, such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins

family

Two or more persons, including the householder, who are related by birth, marriage, or adoption and who live together as one household

household

Living arrangement composed of one or more people who occupy a housing unit

neolocal residence

Living arrangement in which a married couple sets up residence separate from either spouse’s family

new location for married couple

nuclear family

Family unit consisting of at least one parent and one child

this is the basic “core” family unit

absolutism

Approach to defining deviance that rests on the assumption that all human behavior can be considered either inherently good or inherently bad

the idea that behavior is either always right or wrong — no matter the situation or culture

criminalization

Official definition of an act of deviance as a crime

government officially makes a behavior illegal

deterrence theory

Theory of deviance positing that people will be prevented from engaging in a deviant act if they judge the costs of such an act to outweigh its benefits

the idea that people avoid crime if they believe the punishment is worse than the reward