Lecture 45 and 46 - Metabolism

Glucose can be used immediately to produce __________ through glycolysis and the TCA cycle.

ATP

The storage form of glucose in the body is __________.

Glycogen

Excess glucose can be converted into __________ and stored in adipose tissue.

Fatty acids

The process of converting glucose to glycogen is called __________.

Glycogenesis

The process of breaking down glycogen into glucose is called __________.

Glycogenolysis

The formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources is called __________.

Gluconeogenesis

Gluconeogenesis primarily occurs in the __________ and __________.

Liver; kidney

The main substrates for gluconeogenesis are lactate, amino acids, and __________.

Glycerol

The hormone that stimulates glycogenesis is __________.

Insulin

The hormones that stimulate glycogenolysis are __________ and __________.

Glucagon; epinephrine

Liver glycogen stores are typically depleted after about __________ hours of fasting.

24

Anaerobic glycolysis converts pyruvate into __________.

Lactate

Fatty acids with no double bonds are called __________ fatty acids.

Saturated

Fatty acids with one or more double bonds are called __________ fatty acids.

Unsaturated

Fatty acids with more than one double bond are called __________ fatty acids.

Polyunsaturated

Omega-3 fatty acids have a double bond at the __________ carbon from the methyl end.

Third

Omega-6 fatty acids have a double bond at the __________ carbon from the methyl end.

Sixth

Fatty acid oxidation occurs in the __________.

Mitochondria

Long-chain fatty acids require __________ to enter the mitochondria.

Carnitine

Fatty acid oxidation produces more __________ than carbohydrate metabolism.

ATP

Ketone formation occurs when __________ metabolism is low.

Glucose

Common conditions that increase ketone production include starvation, diabetes mellitus, and __________ diets.

High-fat, low-carbohydrate

The three main ketone bodies are __________, __________, and __________.

Beta-hydroxybutyrate; acetoacetate; acetone

Excess ketones can lead to __________.

Metabolic acidosis

Chylomicrons transport __________ lipids.

Dietary (exogenous)

VLDL primarily transports __________ to tissues.

Triglycerides

IDL is also known as a __________ remnant.

VLDL

LDL delivers __________ to peripheral tissues.

Cholesterol

HDL transports cholesterol from tissues back to the __________.

Liver

All amino acids contain an alpha-carbon, amino group, carboxyl group, and __________.

Side chain (R group)

__________ is not a true amino acid but a sulfonic acid.

Taurine

Essential amino acids must be obtained from the __________.

Diet

Dispensable amino acids can be __________ by the body.

Synthesized

Cats require __________ and __________ as essential nutrients not required by all species.

Taurine; arachidonic acid

Deficiency of __________ can lead to hyperammonemia and death.

Arginine

The urea cycle converts toxic __________ into __________.

Ammonia; urea

The urea cycle occurs in the __________.

Liver

The brain primarily uses __________ for energy.

Glucose

During starvation, the brain can use __________ as an alternative fuel.

Ketones

Skeletal muscle prefers __________ as its primary energy source.

Fatty acids

The liver plays a major role in __________ metabolism.

Regulating

The kidney can perform __________ during fasting.

Gluconeogenesis

The intestinal tract primarily uses __________ and __________ for energy.

Glutamate; glutamine

Colonocytes primarily use __________ as a fuel source.

Butyrate

Adipose tissue stores energy as __________.

Triglycerides

Tissues that can ONLY use glucose include RBCs, retina, and __________.

Renal medulla

The absorptive state is also called the __________ state.

Fed

During the absorptive state, __________ levels are high.

Insulin

During fasting, __________ levels decrease and __________ levels increase.

Insulin; glucagon

After glycogen depletion, the body relies on __________.

Gluconeogenesis

Fatty acids are converted into __________ in the liver during fasting.

Ketones

Stress starvation is characterized by increased __________ breakdown.

Protein

Stress hormones that increase metabolism include __________ and __________.

Glucocorticoids; catecholamines

Consequences of stress starvation include impaired immune function, poor healing, and decreased __________.

Strength

Fatty acids __________ be converted into glucose.

Cannot

The brain always requires at least some __________.

Glucose

Red blood cells rely entirely on __________ metabolism.

Glucose

HDL is responsible for __________ cholesterol transport.

Reverse

LDL is responsible for delivering cholesterol to __________ tissues.

Peripheral

Carnitine deficiency can lead to __________.

Cardiomyopathy