Psych Unit 3

Neurons

Basic building block of the Nervous system

Dendrites

The branches on a neuron that receive information

Axon

The long portion of the neuron that passes the impulse away from the body of the cell to the terminal branches.

Myelin Sheath

Layar of fatty tissue around the axon that insulates, protects, and speeds up electric impulses.

Glial cells

Cells that provide nutrients, insulate myelin, guide neural connections and collect ions and neurotransmitters. They provide support and maintenance to the neurons.

Cell body

The neuron’s life support center

Action potential

A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon after being fired by the neuron.

Resting potential

The state in which the outside of the axon fluid is positively charged and the inside is negative.

Sodium

The element that is let into the myelin sheath during an impulse.

Potassium

The element which is pumped out of the myelin sheath because of the inflow of sodium ions.

Threshold

-55 mv. The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

Refractory period

A resting period where action can’t occur until the axon returns to its original resting state.

All or None Response

A characteristic of neural impulses. Neurons either fire or they don’t. Increased stimulation won’t increase the impulses’ intensity.

Synaspe

The junction or gap between the axon and the dendrite of the next neuron.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers released at the end of the axon in order to enable the impulse to cross the synapse

Agonist molecules

Molecules that increase a neurotransmitter’s actions. Used in drugs to amplify feelings by mimicking the effects of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist molecules

Molecules that decrease a neotrasmitter’s action by blocking production or release. It is able to occupy the recept site because it is similar to the natural neurotransmitter, but it doesn’t stimulate the site.

Acetylcholine (ACh) (function)

A neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, and memory.

Dopamine (function)

A neurotransmitter that increases movement, learning, attention, and emotion

Serotonin (function)

A neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

Norepinephrine and Epinephrine (functions)

Neurotransmitters that are involved in stress reactions. They control alterness and arousal.

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid) (function)

Inhibitory neurotransmitter.

Endorphins (function)

A neurotransmitter that influences perception or pain and pain relief or euphoria.

Endorphins (affects)

Overuse of opiates or painkillers can suppress the natural supply of this neurotransmitter.

Dopamine (affects)

Oversupply can cause hallucinations associated with schizophrenia

Undersupply can result in Parkinson’s and a sluggish mood.

Epinephrine (effects)

Neurotransmitter that triggers an energy boost required in high stress situations (fight or flight response)

Norepinephrine (effects)

Undersupply results in a depressed mood.

The neurotransmitter that released after a stress response in order to return the body from a heightened state to its normal state.

Acetylcholine (ACh) (effects)

An undersupply of this neurotransmitter can result in Alzheimer’s.

Gultamate (effect)

An oversupply of this neurotransmitter results in migraines and seizures.

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid) (effects)

An undersupply of this neurotransmitter can result in seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

Glutamate (function)

An excitatory neurotransmitter that is involved in memory

Central Nervous System

Consists of the Brain and Spinal Cord. Enables thinking, feeling, and action.

Peripheral Nervous System

Consists of sensory and motor neurons throughout the body. Gathers info and transmits CNS decisions to other body parts.

Sensory Neurons

Carries messages from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors inward (to the brain and spinal cord).

Motor Neurons

Carries instructions from the CNS outward to muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Communicate internally and process info between sensory inputs and motor outputs

Somatic Nervous System

Part of the PNS, enables voluntary control.

Autonomatic Nervous System

Part of the PNS, controls glands and internal organ muscles (unconscious movement)

Sympathetic Nervous System

Part of the ANS, arouses and expends energy in a “fight or flight” situation.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Part of the ANS, conserves energy as it calms you after a stress response.

Reflexes

An automatic response to stimuli that occurs through the spinal cord. Done with a sensory neuron and a motor neuron communicating through an interntural. The reaction occurs before the brain receives information.

Endocrine System

A system of chemical communication glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

Chemical messengers which travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues. (slower but more long-lasting than neural messages)

Hypothalamus

Brain region controlling the pituitary gland. Regulates glucose levels by stimulating insulin production by the pancreas.

Pituitary Gland

Located in the core of the brain. Secretes many different hormones, some of which affect other glands. It releases growth hormones and oxytocin which enables birthing functions and promotes trust.

Thyroid

Located in the neck. Effects metabolism and energy.

Parathyroid

Located in the neck. Helps regulate calcium levels in the blood

Adrenal glands

Located on top of the pancreas. Helps trigger a fight or flight reaction by releasing cortisol.

Pancreas

Organ that helps regulate blood sugar levels by releasing insulin, which breaks down glucose, when instructed to by the hypothalamus.

Testes and ovaries

Secrete sex hormones like testosterone and estrogen.

Pineal glands

Releases melatonin which promotes sleep.

Lesion

When scientists selectively destroy tiny clusters of brain cells to learn more about brain functions.

EEG (Electroenphalagram)

An amplified readout of the waves of electrical activity in your brain (not specific). Uses electrode places on the scalp.

MEG (magnetoencephalagraphy)

Measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity (not specific). Participants are put in special rooms that cancel out other magnetic signals.

CT Scan (computed tomography)

Takes an x-ray of the brain in order to reveal brain damage.

PET Scan (positron emission tomography)

Depicts brain activity using glucose consumption in each area. This shows specific areas that are consuming more oxygen and therefore more activated.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

Puts a person’s head into a magnetic field. Aligning the atoms of the brain molecules. Then momentarily distorts the atoms. When they return to normal, they emit a signal which provides a visual of the structure of the brain.

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

Reveals both brain structure and brain function by combining information gathered through and MRI to information gathered through a PET Scan.

Medulla

Located at the base of the brainstem. Controls autonomic functions like breathing, digestion, and heartbeat.

Pons

Located above the medulla and is part of the brainstem. The juncture point in motor and sensory information. Regulates autonomic processes like circadian rhythm and sleep.

Reticular Formation

Neuron network that goes inside the brainstem from the spinal cord through the thalamus. It filters stimuli and relays important information. It controls arousal and alertness.

Thalamus

Located on top of the brainstem. Acts as a sensory control center by receiving information from the senses (except smell) and routes this information to a higher brain.

Cerebellum

Bottom back of the brain. Nonverbal learning and skill memory. Helps us judge time, modulate emotions, and coordinates voluntary motion with the help of the pons.

Hippocampus

Part of the limbic system and located on the border between the higher and lower brain. It processes conscious explicit memories as well as smell.

Amygdala

Part of the limbic system. Linked with aggression, fear, and other intense emotions.

Hypothalamus

Part of the limbic system and located below the thalamus. It helps with body maintenance, influence hunger, thirst, body temp., and sexual behavior, and helps maintain homeostasis. It acts as a reward center.

Frontal lobes

Part of the cerebral cortex and located behind the forehead. It is in charge of planning, intention, and judgement, speech, moral compass, and the motor cortex.

Parietal lobes

Part of the cerebral cortex and located at the top back of the brain. It receives information from skin senses, allowing us to feel, and helps with math and spatial reasoning.

Occipital lobes

Part of the cerebral cortex and located at the back of the head. It receives and processes visual information.

Temporal lobe

Part of the cerebral cortex and located just above the ears. It processes sounds, language, and helps with facial recognition and information retrieval.

Motor cortex

Located at the back of the frontal lobe. It controls intentional movement.

Somatosensory cortex

located at the front of the parietal lobe, behind the motor cortex. It registers and processes body touch and movement sensations (touch perception).

Association areas

Areas located throughout the cerebral cortex. In charge of higher mental functions including recognizing faces, perception of movement, ethics and morals.

Corpus Callosum

Part of the cerebral cortex and located between the two brain hemispheres. It consists of neural fibers connected the two hemispheres and carries messages between them.

Left hemisphere

Makes quick and literal interpretations.

Broca’s Areas

Located in the left hemisphere in the frontal lobe. Specializes in speaking language.

Wernicke’s area

Located in the left hemisphere in the temporal lobe. Specializes in understanding of language.

Right hemisphere

Makes inferences, modules speech, and enables self-awareness.

Split brain

Results from a surgery that cuts the fibers connected the two brain hemispheres in order to prevent damage to the brain by seizures. This results in the two sides of the brain thinking and acting isolated from each other.

Consciousness

Subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Cognitive neuroscience

Study of brain activity linked with our mental processes.

Dual processing

Information that is simultaneously processes on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Blindsight

When someone can respond to visual stimuli without consciously experimenting it. Occurs when the area of recognizing objects is damage but not the areas of grasping for and navigating objects. (visual perception track vs. visual action track)

Parallel processing

Enables the brain to take care of routine businesses by focusing on many aspects of a situation at once.

Sequential processes

Involves solving one aspect of a problem at once. Generally used for more difficult or new situations.

Damage to medulla

Brain death (result of?)

Damage to the pons

Paralysis or loss of purposeful movement (result of?)

Damage to the reticular formation

Coma (result of?)

Damage to the thalamus

Sensory breakdown: inability to hear, see, taste, and feel (result of?)

Damage to the cerebellum

Imbalanced and uncoordinated movements (result of?)

Damage to the hippocampus

Retrograde or anterograde amnesia or loss of new memory. (result of?)

Damage to amygdala

Mellowness and numb feeling (result of?)

Damage to the hypothalamus

Reward deficiency syndrome (result of?)

Damage to the frontal lobes

Personality and behavior changes, inability to plan tasks, and less moral judgement. (result of?)

Damage to the parietal lobes

Difficulty with spatial orientation. (result of?)

Damage to the occipital lobes

Blindness and visual hallucinations (result of?)

Damage to the temporal lobes

Ringing in ears, auditory hallucinations, auditory processing disorder. (result of?)

Damage to the motor cortex

Loss of coordination and poor dexterity. (result of?)

Damage to the somatosensory cortex

Numbness and tingling in certain areas (result of?)

Damage to association areas

Processing difficulties. (result of?)