A&P Hesi A2

superior

above

inferior

below

anterior

toward the front

posterior

toward the back

medial

closer to mid-line

lateral

further away from mid-line

proximal

closer to attachment site to trunk

distal

farther away from attachment site to trunk

superficial

closer to surface of body

deep

further into body

Transverse

horizontal plane dividing the body into superior and inferior parts

medial

vertical plane dividing the body into right and left parts

frontal

vertical plane diving the body into anterior and posterior parts

median

midline longitudinal plane dividing the head and torso into right and left halves the presence of the sectioned midline of the vertebral column and spinal cord is characteristic of this plane. This is the middle sagittal plane.

sagittal

is the longitudinal plane dividing the head and torso into right and left parts ( not halves ) it is parallel to the median ( not medial plane )

coronal-frontal plane

longitudinal plane dividing the body ( head torso limbs ) or its parts into front and back halves or parts

supine

lying face upward

prone

lying face down

dorsal

situated at the back

ventral

front view

anatomical position

when a person is standing with the palms of the hands facing outward and the fifth finger in a medial position.

is cranial cavity dorsal?

yes

cranial cavity

houses the brain

vertebral cavity

houses the spinal cord

what cavity is the thoracic cavity?

ventral

thoracic cavity

houses the lung, hearts, thymus, etc

abdominopelvic cavity

houses the organs of the digestive, and urinary systems, and more

Tissues

groups of cells that work together to perform a specific function

how many groups are tissues divided into in animals?

7

epithelial

tissue in which cells are joined together tightly

epithelial tissue example

skin

connective tissue

connective tissue may be dense, loose, or fatty. it protects and binds body parts

what does connective tissue include?

bone tissue, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, fat, blood, and lymph

cartilage tissue

cushions and provides structural support for body parts. has a jelly-like base

is cartilage tissue fibrous?

yes

blood tissue

transports oxygen to cells and removes wastes

carries hormones and defends against disease

bone tissue

hard tissue that supports and protects softer tissues and organs

what does bone marrow produce?

red blood cells

muscle tissue

helps support and move the body

3 types of muscle tissue

smooth, cardiac, and skeletal

what is nervous tissue made up of

cells called neurons that form a network through the body to control responses in changes in the external and internal environment

where is nerve tissue located?

brain, spinal cord, and nerves

where does some nervous tissue send signals?

to muscles and glands to trigger responses

organs

groups of tissues that work together to perform specific functions

organ system

several organs that are grouped together

how many major organ systems are there?

11

cephalic or cephalad

towards the head

cranial

meaning the skull

caudad

towards the tail or posterior

caudal

meaning the hindquarters

how is the respiratory system divided?

upper and lower

what does the upper respiratory system include?

nose, nasal cavity, mouth, pharynx, and larynx

what does the lower respiratory system include?

trachea, lungs, and bronchial tree

how are components of the respiratory system categorized?

part of the airway, the lungs, or the respiratory muscles

what does the airway include?

nose, nasal cavity, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchial network

what is the function of the airway?

it is lined with cilia that trap microbes and debris and sweep them back towards the mouth

trachea

windpipe

pharynx

throat

larynx

voicebox; vibrates and produces sound before entering trachea

what do the lungs house?

the bronchi and bronchial network

where do the bronchi terminate?

extend into lungs and terminate into millions of alveoli

alveoli

air sacs

how many lobes does the right lung have?

3 lobes

how many lobes does the left lung have?

2 lobes, leaving room for heart

what are the lungs surrounded by?

a pleural membrane?

what is the function of the pleural membrane?

reduce friction between the lungs and walls of the thoracic cavity when breathing

what does the respiratory muscles include?

diaphragm and intercostal muscles

diaphragm

dome-shaped muscle

separates the throacic and abdominal cavities

what happens when the diaphragm contracts?

expands thoracic cavity which draws air into the lungs

where are the intercostal muscles located?

between the ribs

main function of the respiratory system

supply body with oxygen and rid the body of carbon dioxide

where does the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occur?

in millions of tiny alveoli, which are surrounded by blood capillaries

other functions of respiratory system

filters, warms, and moistens air, creates speech, functions in sense of smell

how does the respiratory system function in the sense of smell?

chemoreceptors located in the nasal cavity respond to airborne chemicals

how does the respiratory system contribute to acid-base homeostasis?

hyperventilation can increase blood pH during acidosis (low pH) & slowing breathing can lower blood pH during alkalosis (high pH)

breathing process

diaphragm & intercostal muscles contract, expanding lungs

during inspiration or inhalation, diaphragm expands chest cavity and intercostal muscles expand ribs, as well as chest cavity

when diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, the size of the chest cavity decreases, forcing air out of the lungs through expiration or exhalation

what part of the brain controls the breathing process?

medulla oblongata (brain stem): monitors carbon dioxide in blood and signals the breathing rate to increase when these levels are too high

circulatory system

responsible for the internal transport of substances to and from the cells

what does the circulatory system consist of?

blood, blood vessels, and heart

blood composition

water, solutes, and other elements in a fluid connective tissue

blood vessels

tubules of different sizes that transport blood in a closed system to tissues throughout the body

heart

muscular pump providing the pressure necessary to keep blood flowing throughout the circulatory system

how does rate of blood flow change from larger tubules to smaller ones?

the rate slows

what is the smallest tubule?

capillary beds; the flow of blood is quite slow

what system is supplementary to the circulatory system?

the lymph vascular system

lymph vascular system function

cleans excess fluids and proteins and returns them to the circulatory system

what are the 3 layers of all blood vessels, except capillaries?

1. innermost: tunica intima

2. tunica media (smooth muscle cells & elastic fibers)

3. outer: tunica adventitia

elastic arteries structure

aorta & major branches Tunica media has more elastin than any other vessels

largest vessels in the arterial system

function of elastic arteries

stretch when blood is forced out of the heart, and recoil under low pressure

muscular arteries function & structure

regulate blood flow by vasoconstriction/vasodilation

includes arteries that branch off elastic arteries; higher proportion of smooth muscle and fewer elastic fibers

arterioles structure & function

tiny vessels that lead to capillary beds, thin, almost entirely smooth muscle cells

primary vessels involved in vasoconstriction/vasodilation

control blood flow to capillaries

Venules structure/function

tiny vessels that exit the capillary beds, thin, porous walls; few muscle cells and elastic fibers

empty blood into larger veins

veins structure/function

thin tunica media and tunica intima, wide lumen valves prevent backflow of blood

carry blood back to heart

how many quarts does an adult human have?

about 5 quarts

what 5 things make up blood?

red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma

what makes up blood volume?

plasma & platelets

plasma

more than half of blood volume: mainly water & serves as a solvent

contains plasma proteins, ions, glucose, amino acids, hormones, and dissolved gases

platelets

fragments of stem cells and serve an important function in blood clotting

what do red blood cells do?

transport oxygen to cells & form in bone barrow

can live for about four months

constantly being replaced by new ones

lack a nucleus

what do white blood cells do?

defend body against infection and remove wastes