Research Methods key terms

Quantitative data

Data that is in numerical form

Qualitative data

Data that is non-numerical such as words or images.

Interpretivism

An approach to research favouring small scale qualitative research.

Positivism

An approach to research favouring large scale quantitative research

Realism

Combination of both elements of interpretivism and positivism - most contemporary research takes this approach

Validity

The accuracy of your data, to what extent does your research actually measure and reveal what it was supposed to do.

Reliability

How easily repeatable is your research.Structure and standardisation makes this more achievable.

Hawthorne effect

When participants alter their behaviour as a result of being observed. This can affect the validity of your research.

Social desirability bias

When participants give the answers that they feel would make them look good rather than their true answers. Affects the validity of your research

Rapport

The relationship between a participant and researcher, a positive rapport can result in more valid data as pp’s are more likely to give true and honest answers.

Research bias

Where researchers project their own biases onto a research study. For example, if a researcher has a particular aim, they may ask deliberate questions so as to fit answers to the aim of their study.

Generalisability

Whether you can apply the findings of your research to your target population

Overt

Being open about the fact that you are doing research.

Covert

Undercover research - poses ethical issues

Ethics

a set of guidelines that govern how researchers should conduct their work in a morally acceptable way to ensure that participants are not harmed physically, socially or psychologically through taking part in the research.

Methodological pluralism

Use of a combination of different methods to gain a deeper insight and understanding of a particular topic (ethnographic research comes under this topic) - paul willis is an example of methodological pluralism

Ethnography

Researcher immerses themself into a setting, usually for an extended period of time - the goal is to gain verstehen

Triangulation

A way of cross checking your results with other sources to ensure validity - the researcher may conduct multiple methods themselves to achieve this or cross check their findings with data gathered by someone else.

Informed consent

Participants must be fully told what the study involves and agree to take part

Avoidance of deception

Researchers should not mislead or lie to participants about the study’s true purpose.

Protection from harm (emotional and physical)

Participants must not be put at risk of physical or psychological distress.

Right to withdraw

Participants can leave the study or remove their data at any time.

Confidentiality and anonymity

Personal information must be kept private and names not revealed.

Privacy and dignity

Participants’ personal space and respect must be maintained throughout the research.

Questionnaires

Set list of questions can be open or closed, usually closed in nature.

Structured interviews

Essentially a questionnaire but face-to-face. Researchers have a set number of questions that they ask pp’s; they must stick to the order and only ask the questions on the interview schedule. Does not allow for follow up questions.

Unstructured interviews

Interviewer doesn’t have a list of predetermined questions. They may have a list of some potential questions they would like to ask but they have the flexibility to answer more questions and follow up questions.

Semi-structured interviews

Combines elements of both of the above. Researcher has a list of questions to ask, however they are not restricted to asking questions in the same order and also have the flexibility to ask probing questions.

Group interviews

Researchers interviews participants in a group rather than 1:1.

Participant observation - also can make up ethnographic research (ethnographic research means to be as close to your subject of study as possible)

An observation where the researcher is fully immersed in the setting they are researching and taking part in some or all of the activities of the group.They essentially become part of the group for a set period of time, usually conducted over a longer period.

Non-participant observation

Researcher observes the setting but doesn’t take part in the activities or interfere in the setting, they are a bystander taking a back seat.

Structured observation

Before the observation takes place researcher/s develop a list of behavioural codes or categories that they will be looking out for whilst observing. When they do the observation they record how many times this behaviour etc occurs. We can do this via time sampling or event sampling.

Unstructured observation

Researcher goes into the setting without a list of any specific behaviours or interactions that they will be looking out for, they go in with an open mind. Often making detailed notes in the field or after the observation.

Secondary sources + give examples

Official stats - quantitative

Media, adverts, images, diaries, journals - qualitative

Field experiments

An experiment conducted in a natural setting such as a classroom. These are different to observations because the researcher manipulates/changes something about the environment. An example is the bystander effect, where researchers have an ‘actor’ working for them who pretend to be someone in need of ‘help’ such as feigning an injury - the researcher can then observe how many and if people go to help the person. They can make further changes such as having another ‘actor’ who goes to help the person and observe if this makes a difference in the likelihood of others doing so.

Sampling frame

The list or section of the target population that can actually be chosen from

Target population

The specific group the researcher wants to study

Generalisability

The extent to which research findings can be applied to people, settings, or situations beyond the study itself.

Representativeness

The extent in which your sample reflects the characteristics of your target population

Gatekeeper

A person or group that will allow the researcher access to a sample group

Access

The ability of the researcher to actually make contact with a population that is of particular interest

Stratified Sampling

The research divides the target population into relevant sub-groups and randomly selects participants from each group to ensure representation

Random Sampling

Randomly select ‘x’ number of people from the list of the target population

Systematic Sampling

The researcher uses the full list of the target population and selects every nth person after randomising the list

Opportunity Sampling (sometimes called purposive)

Researcher selects the sample that is most available and convenient to them.

Volunteer Sampling

Advertise the research and wait for volunteers to contact you/submit their data

Snowball Sampling

Contacting people and ask them to pass on your research to other people

Quota Sampling

Researchers deliberately select participants to reflect certain characteristics. E.g. age, gender, ethnicity and class

Sampling

Not a method, it is part of a process of research design

Selection bias

When the sample is chosen in a way that favours certain groups.

Representative

A sample that accurately reflects the population’s characteristics.

Biased

When results are influenced by unfair or systematic errors.

Researcher bias

When the researcher’s expectations affect data collection or interpretation.

Time consuming

When a method takes a long time to carry out.

External validity

How well can findings be applied to real‑life settings?

Generalisability

The extent to which results apply to other people or situations.

Hard-to-reach populations

Groups that are difficult to include in research.

Sensitive research

Topics that may cause distress or ethical issues