year 2 research methods

What does a correlation coefficient represent?

The strength and direction of the relationship between two continuous co-variables.

What indicates a stronger correlation, +0.50 or -0.50?

+0.50 and -0.50 indicate the same strength of correlation; the sign indicates direction.

What is a case study?

A detailed analysis of an unusual individual or event, which may involve qualitative and quantitative data.

What is a limitation of case studies?

Generalization from small samples can be problematic, and conclusions may be based on subjective interpretations.

What is content analysis?

Analysing qualatative data into coding ect to turn into quantative data

What is the null hypothesis?

The hypothesis stating that there is no difference between conditions in an experiment.

What is the significance level commonly used in psychology?

Usually set at 5% (0.05).

What is a Type I error?

Rejecting null hypothesis and inncorrectly accepting the alternative hypothesis as the results were due to chance, too optimisitic, false positive

What is a Type II error?

The incorrect acceptance of a null hypothesis, often due to a stringent significance level, pessimistic, results were significant

What does reliability in research measure?

The consistency of a measurement across different occasions or observers.

What is test-retest reliability?

A method where the same test is administered to the same person on different occasions to compare results.

What is internal validity?

The extent to which a study measures what it was designed to measure.

What is ecological validity?

The extent to which findings can be generalized from one setting to other settings.

What is face validity?

Whether a test appears to measure what it is supposed to measure 'on the face of it'.

What is concurrent validity?

The degree to which test results correlate with a previously established test.

What is a parametric test?

A statistical test that assumes the data follows a normal distribution and meets specific criteria.

What is the Mann-Whitney U test used for?

To test the difference between two sets of data in an unrelated design, with at least ordinal level data.

What is the Wilcoxon T test used for?

To test the difference between two sets of data in a related design, with at least ordinal level data.

What is the difference between a one-tailed and a two-tailed test?

A one-tailed test predicts the direction of the effect, while a two-tailed test does not specify a direction.

What is the purpose of using a control group in experimental research?

To compare the effects of the independent variable against a baseline.

What is a double-blind procedure?

A method where neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving the treatment or the control.

What is the significance of using standardised procedures in experiments?

To ensure consistency when testing different participants.

What does triangulation in qualitative research refer to?

Using multiple methods or data sources to enhance the validity of research findings.

What is the difference between nominal, ordinal, and interval data?

Nominal data is categorical, ordinal data is ordered but not evenly spaced, and interval data has equal intervals.

What is the purpose of using lie scales in questionnaires?

To reduce social desirability bias by allowing respondents to answer more honestly.

What is meant by operationalising behavioral categories in observations?

Defining specific behaviors clearly to ensure consistent measurement.

What is the role of statistical tests in psychological research?

To determine whether results are significant or due to chance.

What is the purpose of the Abstract in a scientific report?

A short summary (200 words) of the key elements in the report.

What does the Introduction section of a scientific report include?

Literature review, including aim and hypothesis.

What is included in the Method section of a scientific report?

Design, sample, apparatus/materials, procedure, ethics.

What type of statistics are presented in the Results section?

Descriptive and inferential statistics; raw data is in the appendix.

What is discussed in the Discussion section of a scientific report?

Analysis of results, links to previous research, limitations, and wider implications.

What does referencing in a scientific report include?

List of sources including author(s), date, title, volume/page numbers/publisher/source.

What is Spearman's rho used for?

Test of correlation between co-variables; data must be at least ordinal level.

What does Pearson's r test for?

Correlation between co-variables; data must be at interval level.

What is a Chi-Squared test used for?

Test of difference between two sets of data or association between co-variables; data must be independent and nominal.

What is the Rule of R?

Tests with a letter 'R' in their name require the calculated value to be equal to or more than the critical value.

What is a paradigm shift in scientific research?

A scientific revolution occurs when there is a shift in the shared set of assumptions within scientific subjects (Kuhn).

What is the importance of falsifiability in scientific theories?

Scientific theories must be testable and hold the possibility of being proved false.

Why is replicability important in science?

Findings must be repeatable across time and context to be considered valid.

What is the empirical method in science?

Gathering evidence through direct observation and experience while minimizing personal bias.

What is the purpose of operationalisation in research?

Defining variables so they can be measured.

What is a random sample?

A sampling method where every individual has an equal chance of selection.

What is a systematic sample?

Selecting every nth person from a list.

What is a stratified sample?

A sample that reflects the proportions of different subgroups in the population.

What is an opportunity sample?

Choosing participants who are readily available.

What is a volunteer sample?

Participants self-select to be part of the study, often in response to an advertisement.

What are extraneous variables?

Nuisance variables that are randomly distributed and do not systematically affect the dependent variable.

What are confounding variables?

Variables that vary systematically with the independent variable, affecting the results.

What are demand characteristics?

When participants guess the aims of the study and alter their behavior accordingly.

What are investigator effects?

The influence of the researcher on the dependent variable or design decisions.

What is randomisation in research?

Chance methods used to reduce the researcher's bias.

What is standardisation in research?

Ensuring all participants have the same experience during the study.

What is a lab experiment?

An experiment where the independent variable is manipulated in a controlled setting.

What is a field experiment?

An experiment where the independent variable is manipulated in a natural setting.

What is a natural experiment?

An experiment where the independent variable changes naturally, with the dependent variable measured in a natural or lab setting.

What is a quasi-experiment?

An experiment where the independent variable is based on an existing difference between people.

What is a naturalistic observation?

Behavior observed where it normally occurs, without control over variables.

What is the main difference between controlled observations and naturalistic observations?

Controlled observations have some control over variables and environment, while naturalistic observations have low internal validity and high external validity.

What are the two types of observations based on participant knowledge?

Covert observations (participants unaware) and overt observations (participants aware).

What is the advantage of participant observations?

Increased external validity due to the observer joining the group.

What is a disadvantage of participant observations?

Loss of objectivity and potential bias.

What are behavioral categories in observational research?

Target behaviors broken down into observable components.

What is the difference between event sampling and time sampling?

Event sampling counts specific events, while time sampling counts behaviors at timed intervals.

What are the two main types of data collected through questionnaires?

Quantitative data (numerical) and qualitative data (non-numerical descriptions).

What is a Likert scale?

A rating scale used in questionnaires to measure attitudes or opinions.

What is the purpose of peer review in research?

To allocate funding, validate quality of research, and suggest amendments or improvements.

What is the concept of significance in statistical testing?

Research findings have not occurred by chance, typically using a significance level of 5% (p<0.05).

What is the difference between primary data and secondary data?

Primary data is collected firsthand for a specific investigation, while secondary data is collected by someone else.

What is the mean in measures of central tendency?

The average value calculated by adding all scores and dividing by the number of scores.

What does standard deviation measure?

How much scores deviate from the mean on average.

What is the range in measures of dispersion?

The difference between the highest and lowest scores.

What is a scattergram used for?

To show the strength and direction of the relationship between two co-variables.

What is a bell curve in statistics?

A normal distribution where the mean, median, and mode are all at the same point.

What is the significance of publication bias in peer review?

It can create a false impression of current knowledge by favoring positive results.

What are the strengths of qualitative data?

Rich in detail and greater external validity.

What are the limitations of quantitative data?

Less biased but narrower in meaning.

What is the purpose of using structured interviews?

To ensure consistency and ease of replication in data collection.

What is social desirability bias?

The tendency of respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

What is the difference between positive, negative, and zero correlations?

Positive correlation indicates that as one variable increases, so does the other; negative correlation indicates that as one variable increases, the other decreases; zero correlation indicates no relationship.

What is the concept of probability in statistical testing?

The likelihood that a sample would occur if the null hypothesis were true.

What is the purpose of using a standardised schedule in interviews?

To avoid interviewer bias and ensure that all participants are asked the same questions.

What is the effect of extreme values on the mean?

The mean can be easily distorted by extreme values.

What is the importance of avoiding double-barrelled questions in questionnaires?

To ensure that each question addresses only one issue, allowing for clearer responses.