Unit One: The Renaissance

Early Humanity and Civilizations

1. Homo Sapiens emerged 200,000 years ago


1. Paleolithic Age - stone tools and hunter/gatherers
2. Neolithic Age - agriculture, societies, pottery, permanent dwellings
2. Mesopotamian Civilization (3000 BC - Tigris and Euphrates Rivers)


1. Sumerians, Hittites, etc. (modern civilizations)
3. Egyptian Civilizations (3000 BC - Nile River)


1. 3000+ years of dynastic rule
4. The Israelites - Judaism, Islam, and Christianity


1. Abraham came here around 1900 BC
2. Israel and Judah emerge (two kingdoms)
3. Israel fell to the Assyrians in 722 BC and Judah fell to the Babylonians in 586 BC
4. Jews lost a homeland until 1948 AD

The Greeks (500-300 BC)

Became the foundation for western civilizations - Characterized by city-states and led by councils of nobles (some people involvement in government) - Peloponnesian War led to eventual Greek downfall -

**Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle** were wise philosophers with new ideas about:

* Rule of Law
* Order, Harmony, Justice
* Constitution

Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC)

War between Athens and Sparta that led to Greek downfall

Rome (753 BC - 476 AD)

It’s government, art, ideas, etc. were inspired by the Greeks - transformed from a monarchy to a republic - expanded year by year, particularly into Greece (absorbing their culture) - Julius Caesar ended the republic and transformed Rome into an Empire in 49 BC - controlled tons of Europe (Spain, France, Italy, Greece, Great Britain, etc.) - after Catholicism developed, Rome became the center of Christianity

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By the first century, Rome started to have issues:

* Government Costs
* Massive Empire (hard to communicate and control)
* Corruption
* Invasion from many places
* Changes in army (no longer comprised of citizens)

Fall of Rome

Roman army was conscripted soldiers (not Roman citizens) which made people uncomfortable - In 330 AD, Constantine made Constantinople the capital of Rome, splitting the Empire into East and West - By 476 AD, barbarians such as the Goths, Vandals, and Saxons had destroyed the western Roman Empire - The Eastern Roman Empire became known as Byzantium and continues on until 1453 - the birth of European culture began

Spread of Christianity

Jesus was born in Judaea (part of the Roman Empire), was put to death in 30 AD by Roman soldiers, and his teachings were codified by his followers into the Catholic Faith - Constantine made Catholicism the official religion of the Roman Empire (at least the side that he controlled) and it spread all throughout - After Rome fell, this was the unifying aspect left in Europe and Christian leaders became very powerful

In addition to Christianity, Greek and Roman culture spread throughout Europe (political ideas, science, philosophy, math, etc.)

Western Heritage

Emerges from an evolved and evolving story of human actions and interactions, peaceful and violent, that arose in the eastern Mediterranean, spread across to the western Med. into northern Europe, and eventually to the American continents, and to the peoples of Africa and Asia as well

Pope duties after fall of Rome

The nominal leader of the Catholic Church - they, along with church leadership (cardinals and bishops), claimed supremacy over both religious and secular power (no separation between religion and government) - caused repeated frictions with monarchs (most backed the church bc if they questioned the Church too much the people might question them) - local cathedrals and churches became the centers of urban life in early Europe (after the fall of Rome)

Charlemagne

Became the anointed king of a new Frankish Empire with the blessing of Pope Leo III which started the Holy Roman Empire - this served as an example for future divine right bc the power was granted by the pope

The Great Schism of 1054

Western and Eastern Christendom split in 1054

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Eastern Churches: marriage was permitted and used leavened bread for the Eucharist - supported authority of the Bible and councils

Western Churches: No marriage, unleavened bread used in Eucharist, Holy Spirit came from both the Father and the Son - Supported papal authority

The Great Chain of Being

Medieval society was hierarchal and male-dominated:

Pope → King → Local Noble → Father of the family

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This great chain of being was “divine in nature” and “decreed by God” - Questioning this chain was questioning God

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The Catholic faith was of immense importance to most Europeans bc following the church would get you into Heaven (as opposed to Hell) - There was constant friction but enough of society supported this chain and the church so he church was immensely powerful and dominated European life

Feudal Society

One in which a regional prince or a local lord is dominant and grants protection to citizens

Two Types:

Vassalage: Citizens swear fealty to a lord and also give them a fief (a gift) and the lord will protect them and advocate for them in court

Manorial System: Village farms (aka manors) were owned by lords, and peasants could labor as farmers and receive a small plot of land and tenements in exchange for their service and some of their crops - if you give land to the lord, you get rights and if not you’re a serf (basically a slave)

The Crusades

Declared by Pope Urban II to reclaim the Holy Land of Jerusalem - some religious reasons but also political and economic ones

Result of the Crusades

Centralizes European powers together into - England, France, Holy Roman Empire

Stimulated new trade (between Western Europe and the East), learning, and technological growth

The Black Death

Starting in 1347, the Bubonic Plague swept through Europe - started in inner Asia around 1346 and spread by plague-laden fleas living on rats which spread through merchant ships - the cities of Europe were overcrowded and unsanitary (and the population growth led to a lack of food and jobs) so between 30-50% of the population died

Reactions to the Bubonic Plague

No real medical help - most considered the plague punishment from God (ex. flagellants were self-punishers that were “atoning for mans sins” so God would remove the plague)

Results of the Bubonic Plague

Whole villages vanished and order broke down - revolts and rebellions (people questioning the great chain of being) - with a smaller workforce, peasants could demand more money for their job - kings consolidated their power - nobles’ estates are worth less - farms decline (workers left farms to become higher-paying artisans instead)

The plague never really “ended” and would periodically come back to a lesser degree

Causes of the Hundred Years War

The kingdoms of England and France had centralized to a degree not seen elsewhere in Europe - they had the money and resources for a prolonged fight

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When Charles IV (France) died he had no heirs - English King Edward III asserted his claim to the French throne (related to French line) - The French weren’t about to let an English king have France - Edward owned French territories and French nobility hated it - Both were emerging empires right next to each other which led to constant arguments over trade and military

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This war brought everything to a head

Hundred Years War

Tons of Back and Forth - English started off having major victories despite being outnumbered because of their superior weapons (longbows), being more organized, and having good kings - Flanders pledged allegiance to England - French Estates General was divided and didn’t get much done - Jacquerie - Treaty of Troyes ended the war for the short term - Joan of Arc - France wins Battle of Castillon and “won the war”

Joan of Arc

Joan of Arc declared she was sent by God to free France from the English - she became a nationalistic rallying symbol (a unifying point for France) - was captured and burned at the stake in 1431 - the French rallied and defeated England in 1453 at the Battle of Castillon “winning” the war

Battle of Castillon

Final battle of the Hundred Years War where France “wins”

Effects of the Hundred Years War

Both states became increasingly centralized and there was a breakdown of the feudal system - Modern Europe was beginning to emerge with its major players

Rota Romana

Roman court of the papacy that tightened and centralized the Church’s legal proceedings

1260’s - ran and appointed all major positions of ecclesiastical power all throughout Europe (bishops, cardinals, priests, etc.)

Loyal to pope first, monarchs second - The pope was as much of a political office as a religious one - Rome/pope was seen as increasingly out of touch with common Europeans

Unam Sanctum (1302)

Papal authority was supreme over all - Pope Boniface VIII inserted himself into the international politics of England, France, and other places to disastrous effect - Unam Sanctum was a last-ditch effort of Boniface to reassert papal authority of the secular world

The Avignon Papacy (1309-1377)

Papacy moved to France - Pope Boniface’s successor Clement V moved the papacy from Rome to the French territory of Avignon to get away from pressures in Rome - the practice of selling indulgences began - the Avignon Papacy was known for its completely corrupt practices

John Wycliffe

Believed personal merit and morality were the basis or religious authority (believed church leadership should be good moral people) - Lollards (england)

John Huss

Believed in vernacular translations of the Bible and that transubstantiation (Eucharist and wine literally turn into the body and blood of Christ) was superstitious - Hussites (Bohemia)

Gregory XI

Ended the Avignon Papacy/Babylonian captivity, moving the head of the church back to Rome

The Great Schism of 1378

After Pope Gregory XI’s death, the Roman cardinals elected an Italian pope which annoyed the French so they decided to elect their own pope - Eventually, cardinals on both sides (conciliarists) met to create a council to regulate the actions of popes (and hopefully make it so there’s only one) - They elected a third pope but the other two refused to resign - Finally, all the popes either resigned or were deposed (1417) and a council met to elect one pope (Martin V)

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Shows that there’s cracks in Christianity (not all-knowing)

Cracks in the Catholic Church (1400’s)

The office of the pope was supposed to be the spiritual successor to St. Peter whom Jesus names “the rock” of the Church - most holy of holy - the Avignon Papacy and Great Schism of 1378 seemed less than holy

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To many, the Catholic Church appeared materialistic, corrupt, and more concerned with power than salvation - most Europeans remained devout Catholics but became increasingly suspicious of the power of the popes/Rome - there were cracks in the still extremely powerful Church by the start of the 1400’s

Culture

The ways of living built up by a group and passed on from one generation to another - includes behavior, material things, ideas, institutions, and beliefs

Main traits of a civilization

Urbanism, Metallurgy, and Writing

Mesopotamia

Founded by the Sumerians - they controlled the Southern part (Sumer) - In the north, a group speaking Semitic absorbed Sumerian culture - Amorites invaded and destroyed the Sumerians and gained control (capital: Babylon) - the civilization fell apart after invasions from the Hittites and Kassites

Egyptian Civilization

The Nile served as a watering system for crops and a highway too

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Founded by Menes who unified upper and lower Egypt - Ended by Alexander the Great

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Old Kingdom: Pharaohs had absolute power, direct source of laws and justice, rich, “living god”

Third Dynasty: pharaohs have full supremacy over all of Egypt and oversaw a period of great prosperity - king is a god, land is his possession, people are his servants

Second Intermediate Period: Powerful local nobility

New Kingdom: After an invasion, Egyptian nationalism grew and a dynasty defeated the Hyksos invaders

Eighteenth Dynasty: Pharaohs created absolute government with powerful army - weakened in battle and Egypt became the victim of invasions and rule

Palestine and Israelite Religion

Palestine is the origin of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam - Jews are the source of monotheism - their belief in an all-powerful God demanding righteousness and obedience from mankind is critical to western heritage

The Greeks

Greek culture influenced western European Society - adapted much of this from early civilizations

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The center of Greek life is the Aegean Sea - this placement on the East Mediterranean put Greeks in touch with advanced civilizations

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New Greek alphabet made writing and learning easier - Greece colonized different places which increased Greek nationalism

Polis

Greek institutions that were like city-states but thought of like a community of relatives with different subgroups and common worship ceremonies - each has a guardian deity - originally aristocratic republics

Sparta

After a helot invasion, Cycurgus made reforms - physically fit are forced into military (or training) from age 7-60

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Mixed constitution: monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy

Athens

Solon (and a council of 400 for checking powers) revised the Constitution and established a minor democracy

Clisthenes made reforms: Free, open debate, a council of 500 for finance and foreign policy, demes, etc. - nurtured strong patriotism

Later became even more democratic: everything approved by the popular assembly (all the people)

The Peloponnesian War

Athens vs. Sparta - Sparta Wins

Results: no more patriotism, lots of revolution, etc.

Socrates

Didn’t like democracy (citizens weren’t smart enough to rule)

Plato

Community (polis) is more important than individuals

Aristotle

Middle class is best for ruling bc they’re not arrogant or angry

Alexander the Great

Led the Macedonian army across Asia and conquered Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Persia, and Mesopotamia - Spread Greek culture and ended polis influence

Expansion of Rome

Rome conquered tons of Italy but granted them partial citizenship that forced them to remain loyal - After conquering places outside of Italy, they stopped this citizenship - After Greece became a protectorate, Greek culture influenced lots of Roman culture/life

Rome - Republic to Empire

As rich and poor became more divided, the leader of Rome was typically a successful general, so generals were in the army for selfish reasons (wanted to rule)

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Two generals were contending to rule (Caesar and Pompey) - Caesar won this civil war

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After Caesar’s death, his nephew Octavian controlled Caesar’s troops and became the first emperor of Rome (Changed his name to Augustus) - senate is basically there to serve the emperor - by 2nd century, lots of people don’t want to participate in government - also, army is expensive so taxes are being raised

The Byzantine Empire

Place of the First Great Schism

The Rise of Islam

Muslims conquered lots of Europe near Mediterranean Sea - Europeans developed fear and suspicion of muslims

Monasticism

Christian religious leaders have certain practices to be “perfect”

Treaty of Verdun (843)

After Charlemagne’s heir died, this treaty divided the Frankish Empire into three parts- also, lots of attacks came from Viking, Magyars, and Muslims - this all made local citizens dependent on rich people for protection, paving the way for feudalism

High Middle Ages

A period of political expansion and consolidation - borders secure against invaders - “national” monarchies in France, England, and Germany (HRE) - Trade and commerce! - the pope and other high Christian leaders started assigning bishop instead of kings - papacy is starting to be more independent from the state (like an independent political power)

The Renaissance

Rebirth of the old Greek and Roman cultures (also adding to them) - a movement in art, science, writing, politics, economics, etc. - texts from Greece and Rome previously had been used to better understand Latin and hence God through the interpretation of scripture - this is where Humanism came from - now people began to see value in considering Greek and Roman perspective on self thinking in general

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Didn’t happen all at once - culmination of thinking from the Middle Ages

Why was Italy the birthplace of the Renaissance?

It was urban, secular, and a center of trade (variety of people open to new ideas) - Italy was a mass of powerful city-states with no unifying government

While Italians were religious they were more open to the secular even though the pope literally lived there (a lot of what popes had done, or would do, lessened their view of the power/authority of the pope)

Italy was a crossroads between Northern Europe and the Mediterranean - trade made these city-sates incredibly wealthy - Italy had the wealth to spend on a movement like the Renaissance

Humanism in Europe

The idea of educated citizens started to take hold - this was a start in the breakdown of the Great Chain of Being - previously only nobles needed to be educated

Liberal Arts education emerged - original art and writing emerged that were not purely religious - things written in vernacular

Emphasis placed on human accomplishment and the ability to grow - medieval society was all about the GCOB - you did what you were told and the individual really didn’t matter

Relatively elite movement as only 5% of the European population could read (still important but limited)

The Rise of Towns - High Middle Ages

Population grew rapidly so towns emerged - a new merchant class was formed (bourgeois/burghers) - some peasants were able to move up a rank - they opposed traditional laws that were bad for business and argued for freedoms - citizens started wanting merchants to rule the government

English King William and Rise of new monarchies (1000-1100s)

First king who believed in a balance between monarch and noble rule - England resisted his successors and rebelled against them

Magna Carta

A monument that restored the internal political balance in England

France rise of new monarchies (1000-1100s)

Capetian dynasty established a true national monarchy - King Louis VI was alarmed with William’s power as the king of England and Duke of Normandy and made an alliance with Flanders (a Norman enemy)

King Louis VII built a royal army

Philip II Augustus focused on regaining French land from English control

Louis IX - French started to associate Kings with justice (nationalism sparks)

Holy Roman Empire Rise of new monarchies (1000-1100s)

Hohenstaufen Dynasty - fierce disputes between the emperor and the pope led the government to be taken over by German princes - the victorious papacy launched itself into European politics which was hated on by the people because that shouldn’t be the mission of the Church

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Golden Bull was a seven-member electoral college

Reichstag is a national assembly

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VERY FEUDAL

Universities Forming

Universities began to be formed (University of Paris was first) and required the study of liberal arts

Scholasticism

Reading the works of someone, analyzing it, and forming your own conclusions - threat to biblical and theological authority

Statute of Laborers

After the Bubonic Plague, England limited wages to pre-plague levels and restricted peasants from leaving their master’s land - led to peasant’s revolt in 1381

Taille

French tax on peasants that increased after the Bubonic Plague - led to an uprising known as the Jacquerie

Cities rebound after Bubonic Plague

Nobles integrated/moved into urban areas - people came to cities to learn artisanal skills - the power of nobility and papacy has been reduces and is questioned

Patronage

Rich people pay for an artist to make art for them (art showed wealth and wealth signified power) - fueled art production and this art production fueled the prestige and power of the Italian city-states - this wealth attracted others

The Medici Family

No Renaissance family better exemplifies wealth, power, and prestige - bankers and loans -

Causes of Repeated invasion of Italy

Over the past few centuries, more centralized kingdoms had arisen in England, France, Spain, Russia, and the Holy Roman Empire - Italy had no unifying government so it was weak to outside predations - centralized emperors were able to remain relatively stable and could enforce both cultural and religious dominance to a large degree

Foreign Invasion of Italy (1494-1527)

The Italian city-states tried to maintain a delicate balance but in 1494 Milan asked for French help in an argument with Naples without realizing that France used to rule Milan too - France conquered Milan - The Spanish were unnerved by French entry and domination and Italy and the peninsula was ravaged by war - Pope Alexander VI and Pope Julius II would use various means to end the fighting but both were concerned with their own personal ambitions and military glory - France defeated by “holy league” of European powers

Italy lost its prominence as war destroyed the city-states and wealth faded as new trade routes were being discovered

The Northern Renaissance

Mainly focused on religious reform - took the form of both art and writing

Printing Press

Invented by Johannes Gutenberg in 1440 - complete revolution in education and learning - a large part of the renaissance - people could now have debates/discussions over and through books - used to spread Renaissance ideas all throughout Europe

Erasmus

A Christian humanist who wanted to use translation and interpretation of scripture to reform the church - religion should be inward not outward - he was a reformer - made ancient Christian sources available in their original versions - taught colloquies and collected adages (sayings)

Christian Humanism

Using ideas and learning of Renaissance and applying it to the Bible and religion

Treaty of Troyes

Declared Henry V (English) the heir to the French king - after Henry’s death, Henry VI was the king of both England and France - French still followed King Charles as their king

Council of Lyons

Proclaimed a reunion of the Eastern and Roman Churches

Defender of Peace

A book telling the Church to stick to spiritual matters and that judgement comes in the next life, not this one

Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges

An agreement that limited papal control and privileges

Council of Basel

A council directly negotiating church doctrine with heretics - Pope was annoyed by new reforms limiting his power and reunited with the Eastern church to reestablish papal supremacy

Main competitive Italian city-states

1. Milan
2. Florence
3. Venice
4. Papal States
5. Naples

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Most evolved into despotisms to survive political competition besides Venice with their oligarchy and Council of Ten

Florence four main social groups

1. Old Rich
2. New Rich
3. Middling Burgher Ranks
4. Lowest Class

Ciompi Revolt

Uprising of the poor - resulted from feuding between the old and new rich, social anarchy from Black Death, collapse of banking houses

Signoria

Council that official governed Florence (most loyal to Medici Family)

Despotism

Dominant Groups hired despots to maintain law and order

Important Humanists

Francesco Petrarch - the father of humanism

Dante

Boccacio

Florentine Academy

An informal gathering of Florentine Humanists devoted to the revival of the works of Plato and the Neoplatonists

Platonism

Distinguished between an eternal sphere of being and a perishable world in which humans actually live

Lorenzo Valla

Used his Humanist learning to criticize the current version of the Bible and prove a Church document wrong

Civic Humanism

The belief that education should promote individual virtue and self-sacrificing public service

Renaissance Art Techniques

Perfect symmetry and proportion to reflect the universe’s harmony

Chiaroscuro - shading to enhance naturalness

Linear Perspective - Adjustment of sizes to give the viewer a feeling of continuity

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Embraced the natural world and human emotions

Leonardo Da Vinci

Had many interests and exhibited the Ren. ideal of the universal person

Raphael

Known for tender madonnas and the School of Athens

Mannerism

New style that’s a reaction to the simplicity and symmetry of High Ren. Art that also had parallels in contemporary music and literature -made room for the strange and abnormal - Michelangelo’s works mark the beginning of this style

Treaty of Lodi

Treaty between Florence, Milan, and Naples (Milan and Naples are rivals) - splits after Milanese Moro rises to power and the rivalry continues - leads to French invasions

League of Venice

Alliance between Venice, The Papal States, Emperor Maximilian I, and Ferdinand of Aragon against France - Moro (Milan) realizes his mistake and joins the league

Revival of Monarchy

Shift from divided feudal society to unified national monarchies - important towns began allying with the king - monarch controlled taxation, war, and laws (not vassals) - monarchies created standing national armies - growing cost of war increased need for national sources of income (taxes)

Two French Cornerstone Events in the 15th century

1. Collapse of English empire in France after the HYW
2. Defeat of Charles the Bold and his duchy of Burgundy (france got some land)

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Due to this secure and efficient gov., rulers were able to pursue foreign policy that failed - leads to France becoming divided

Rise of monarchy in Spain

The marriage of Isabella and Ferdinand united the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon (made Spain very powerful) - appointed higher clergy and inquisition officers - Christianized Spain (convert or get kicked out) - sponsored Christopher Columbus

War of the Roses

Civil war between rival royal families in England House of York and the House of Lancaster (ended when lancaster king married york princess)

Court of Star Chamber

England established a fairer court system that prevented noble bribery

Henry the Navigator

Sailed down the African Coast and began Portuguese exploration

Vasco da Gama

First to get to India from around Africa (portugal)