Psychology Cram Packet Review - Thompson 2025/2026

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering Research Design, Biological Basis, Cognition, Development, and Learning based on the lecture cram packet.

Hypothesis

A tentative explanation that must be FALSIFIABLE, meaning it is able to be supported or rejected.

Operational Definition

A clear, precise definition of variables that allows for replication and the collection of reliable data.

Population vs. Sample

The population is everyone the research could apply to, while the sample is the specific group of people chosen for the study.

Correlation vs. Causation

Correlation identifies a relationship between two variables, but it does not equal causation due to the directionality problem and the 3rd variable problem.

Positive Correlation

A relationship where variables increase and decrease together.

Negative Correlation

A relationship where as one variable increases, the other decreases.

Independent Variable ($IV$)

The variable purposefully altered by the researcher to look for an effect; includes the experimental and control groups.

Dependent Variable ($DV$)

The measured variable that is dependent on the manipulations of the independent variable.

Double-Blind Study

An experiment where neither the participant nor the experimenter knows which condition people are assigned to, often used in drug studies.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to control or experimental groups at random to allow for cause and effect conclusions.

Random Sample (Selection)

A method for choosing participants where everyone has an equal chance to take part, which increases generalizability.

Mean vs. Median

The mean is the average used in normal distributions; the median is the middle number used in skewed distributions.

Statistical Significance

Indicated by $p < .05$, meaning results are not due to chance and the experimental manipulation caused the difference in means.

Regression towards the mean

The tendency for scores to get closer to a true average as the sample size increases, minimizing the impact of outliers.

Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Nervous System

The sympathetic NS activates the 'fight or flight' response, while the parasympathetic NS governs 'rest and digest' functions.

Action Potential ($AP$)

An electrical charge that travels down the axon when ions move across the membrane; follows the 'all or nothing' principle.

Resting Potential

The state where a neuron maintains a $-70\,mv$ charge when not active.

Myelin Sheath

A layer that protects the axon and speeds up the action potential down the neuron; its destruction is linked to Multiple Sclerosis.

GABA

The major inhibitory neurotransmitter ($NT$).

Glutamate

The major excitatory neurotransmitter ($NT$).

Acetylcholine ($ACh$)

A neurotransmitter associated with memory and movement; its destruction in the hippocampus is linked to Alzheimer's.

Agonist vs. Antagonist

An agonist is a drug that mimics a neurotransmitter, while an antagonist is a drug that blocks a neurotransmitter.

Amygdala

Part of the limbic system responsible for emotions and fear.

Hippocampus

Brain structure responsible for episodic and semantic memory.

Frontal Lobe

The lobe responsible for decision making, planning, judgment, and executive function; includes the Prefrontal and Motor Cortex.

Broca's Area

Located in the left frontal lobe, it is responsible for speech production.

Wernicke's Area

Located in the left temporal lobe, it is responsible for speech comprehension.

Corpus Callosum

The bundle of nerves connecting the two brain hemispheres, sometimes severed to treat severe epilepsy.

Circadian Rhythms

A 24-hour biological clock governing body temperature and sleep cycles.

REM Sleep

A 'paradoxical' sleep stage characterized by dreaming, higher heart rate, and active brain waves, while the body remains relaxed.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a signal $50\%$ of the time.

Weber's Law

The principle that two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum proportion for a person to perceive a difference.

Rods vs. Cones

Rods detect black, white, and dark adaptation; cones detect color and function in bright light.

Opponent Process Theory

The theory that complementary colors (Red/Green, Blue/Yellow, Black/White) are processed in ganglion cells, explaining afterimages.

Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Processing

Top-down uses prior expectations to form a whole idea; bottom-up uses sensory info to build up to a whole idea.

Heuristics

Shortcut strategies for problem solving, including the Representative Heuristic (stereotyping) and Availability Heuristic (first thought in head).

Functional Fixedness

A cognitive bias where a person can only see the common use for an item, hindering divergent thinking.

Explicit vs. Implicit Memory

Explicit memory requires conscious effort (Episodic facts, Semantic events), while implicit is automatic (Classical conditioning, Procedural skills).

Proactive vs. Retroactive Interference

Proactive is when OLD info blocks new info; Retroactive is when NEW info blocks old info.

Intelligence Quotient ($IQ$)

Calculated as $\frac{\text{mental age}}{\text{chronological age}} \times 100$.

Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence

Fluid intelligence is the ability to learn new things and think abstractly (decreases with age), while crystallized intelligence is based on facts and prior learning (increases with age).

Teratogens

External agents like alcohol or drugs that can cause abnormal prenatal development.

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when removed from view; gained during the Sensorimotor stage.

Conservation

The realization that substances remain the same despite changes in shape or position; lacking in the Pre-operational stage.

Authoritative Parenting

A style involving give-and-take with children, leading to high self-esteem and social competence.

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning where an Unconditioned Stimulus ($UCS$) is paired with a Neutral Stimulus ($NS$) to create a Conditioned Response ($CR$).

Negative Reinforcement

Taking away something annoying or bad to increase a desired behavior.