Week 1 - Theoretical Explanations of Violence

What is the simplest definition of critical thinking?

Finding that which is important.

What are the three main steps in the critical thinking process?

1. Take in information, 2. Ask questions, 3. Use the information.

What are the four ways to take in information according to the critical thinking model?

Reading, listening, observing, and experiencing.

What types of questions should you ask during critical thinking?

ask who, what, where, when, why, and how.

What are the four ways to "use the information" in critical thinking?

Speaking, writing, creating, and doing.

Is critical thinking a linear process or a continuous cycle?

A continuous cycle; each time you go through it, your understanding deepens.

What is the ecological model in the context of understanding violence?

A framework that involves understanding the individual, the family, the daily systems they live and work within, and the larger society's laws and values, as well as how these parts are connected.

Who was one of the first academics to realize that both relationships and environment affect human development?

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1979).

What are the three levels of the ecological framework used to understand violence?

Micro, mezzo, and macro levels.

What is the micro level in the ecological model?

The level that focuses on the individual and encapsulates the smallest social interactions within primary, intimate relationships; emphasizes personal development.

What is the mezzo level in the ecological model?

The level that incorporates family, neighbourhoods, communities, schools, teachers, and peers; includes shared cultural values and beliefs about what is appropriate or inappropriate.

What is the macro level in the ecological model?

The level that includes culture and how it defines societal norms, laws, policies, and economics; involves understanding society's historical and present-day treatment of groups.

When was intimate violence first "academically unearthed" and by whom?

1962 by C. Henry Kempe in "The Battered Child Syndrome".

What are the five types of oppression described in Table 2.1?

1. Cultural imperialism, 2. Exploitation, 3. Marginalization, 4. Powerlessness, 5. Violence.

What is cultural imperialism (ethnocentrism) as a type of oppression?

When the dominant group universalizes its experience and culture to establish the norm; all others are measured by the standards of the dominant group.

What is exploitation as a type of oppression?

Social processes whereby the dominant group is able to accumulate and maintain status, power, and assets from subordinate groups.

What is marginalization as a type of oppression?

Excludes entire groups of people from meaningful participation in society.

What is powerlessness as a type of oppression?

The overarching impact that denies the opportunity to develop one's capacities and the right or power to make decisions regarding one's life.

What is violence as a type of oppression?

Includes physical attacks, harassment, ridicule, or intimidation that stigmatize; group members constantly fear victimization.

What is patriarchy?

The term used to describe a society characterized by historical and current unequal power relations between women and men whereby women are systematically disadvantaged and oppressed.

What does feminist theory suggest about violence and male power?

Violence is the result of male power and the privileged position men hold over women; a reflection of male power and privilege in society.

When did Canadian women earn the right to vote?

1918.

When did Canadian women become "persons" under the law?

1929.

What is the cycle of violence hypothesis (intergenerational theory)?

The theory that violent victimization, particularly physical abuse by parents or caregivers, increases the likelihood of subsequent violent behaviour among children; violence can be passed down through generations.

According to research, what percentage of abused children do NOT become abusive adults?

Approximately 60-70% (one study found 60% do not; another found 70% do not).

What are the three factors that make the cycle of violence less likely to be repeated?

1. Having the love and support of one parent, 2. Having loving supportive relationships as adults, 3. Having fewer stressful events in life.

What is the critical variable in halting intergenerational abuse according to research?

The choice to acknowledge childhood abuse and make a determined decision not to repeat it.

What is classical conditioning?

A learning process discovered by Ivan Pavlov where a biologically programmed reflex is associated with a neutral stimulus, creating a new learned behaviour.

Who conducted the "Little Albert" experiment applying classical conditioning to humans?

John Watson (1920).

In the Little Albert experiment, what was the neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, and unconditioned response?

Neutral stimulus: white rat; Unconditioned stimulus: loud noise; Unconditioned response: fear and crying.

What is stimulus generalization?

When a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus; the more similar the two stimuli are, the more likely generalization is to occur.

What is operant conditioning?

Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favourable or unfavourable consequence (B.F. Skinner, 1953).

What is a positive reinforcer in operant conditioning?

A stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response.

What is a negative reinforcer in operant conditioning?

When a behaviour strengthens or increases in the hope that a negative consequence can be avoided; a response is strengthened by the removal of something unpleasant.

What is positive punishment in operant conditioning?

The presentation of an unfavourable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.

What is negative punishment (punishment by removal)?

When a favourable event or outcome is removed following a behaviour.

What is Albert Bandura's social learning theory key contribution?

Emphasizes the influence of cognition (thoughts, feelings, expectations, values) as well as observation of others' behaviour on personality; people also have the ability to become self-regulated learners.

What is cognitive theory's main emphasis regarding violence?

Violence and aggression are choices that involve individual internal processes (thought patterns); changing thought patterns will theoretically change behaviour.

What are the five perpetrator characteristics noted for those who abuse children and spouses?

1. Family relationship factors (lack of parenting knowledge), 2. History of being abused/witnessing abuse, 3. Alcohol and drug use/abuse, 4. Locus of control (external), 5. Self-esteem and ego strength issues, 6. Anger and aggression patterns.

What is locus of control?

The degree to which people feel able to control their circumstances and outcomes in their own lives; can be internal (person controls their life) or external (environment or others control their life).

Which parent type is more likely to be at risk of becoming abusive regarding locus of control?

Parents with a high external locus of control (feeling their lives are controlled by things external to themselves).

What is the Duluth Model's power and control wheel?

A diagram that depicts behaviours batterers possess that they use to dominate their intimate partners and/or children; central issues are control and domination, not aggression.

What are the two personality disorders most associated with violence and abusive behaviour according to the DSM-IV-TR?

Borderline personality disorder and antisocial personality disorder.

What are the key symptoms of borderline personality disorder?

Relationship problems, intense mood swings, anger/aggression problems (violent temper tantrums), low self-worth, impulsive behaviours, frantic fear of abandonment.

What is antisocial personality disorder (APDS)?

A mental illness involving a pervasive pattern of disregard for or abuse of the rights of others; characterized by deception, exploitation, manipulation, irresponsibility, impulsivity, and deceitfulness.

What are the two key examples of antisocial personality disorder features from the DSM-IV-TR?

Reckless disregard for the safety of self and others, and lack of remorse after having hurt, mistreated, or stolen from another person.

What is the difference between a sex offender and a pedophile?

Sex offender is a legal definition (someone sanctioned by law); pedophile is a clinical diagnosis describing a specific group who engage in adult-child sexual behaviours.

According to Groth's typology, what is a fixated offender?

A male who at the onset of sexual maturation develops a major or exclusive attraction to children; children are their preferred sexual interest.

According to Groth's typology, what is a regressed offender?

An offender who does not exhibit early sexual predisposition toward children but shows conventional peer-oriented development; adult relationships become conflicted due to stress, leading to sexual attraction to children.

What are Finkelhor's four factors in his multifactor model of incest?

1. Emotional congruence, 2. Sexual arousal, 3. Blockage, 4. Disinhibition.

What is emotional congruence in Finkelhor's model?

The emotional fit between the adult's needs and the child's characteristics of accessibility; the offender feels more comfortable with children.

What is sexual arousal in Finkelhor's model?

Physiological arousal in the presence of children or photographs of children; offenders must become sexually aroused by children.

What is blockage in Finkelhor's model?

Fixation at a particular developmental stage that leaves the individual incapable of progressing to a mutually satisfying adult relationship.

What is disinhibition in Finkelhor's model?

The pedophile's ability to be free of inhibition motivators, causing them to be incapable of inhibitory behaviour; they lack proper control of impulses.

What is Munchausen syndrome by proxy (MSbP)?

A form of child abuse in which a parent induces real or apparent symptoms of a disease in a child for attention-seeking purposes (generally a mother abusing her child).

Is Munchausen syndrome by proxy officially recognized in the DSM-IV-TR?

No, it is not officially recognized.

What are the five prevention strategies from Carla van Dam to "stop sex offenders in their tracks"?

1. Willingness to consider trusted adults may molest children, 2. Ability to identify behaviour patterns of socially skilled molesters, 3. Increasing competence at recognizing abusive behaviour, 4. Inoculating society through communication/awareness/action, 5. Ability to set firm boundaries and never negotiate.

What is phrenology (craniology)?

Franz Joseph Gall's theory that the shape of the human skull is indicative of personality and could be used to predict criminality.

What are the three body types in Sheldon's constitutional typology?

Endomorph (heavy and round), ectomorph (light and slender), and mesomorph (intermediate and muscular).

What is the relationship between hypoglycemia and violence according to biochemical theories?

Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) can produce too much insulin, which reduces the mind's capacity to reason or judge long-term consequences of behaviours.

In Canada, how is hypoglycemia considered under section 16 of the Criminal Code?

A "non-mental disorder automatism" which can be determined by a trial judge alone and could potentially result in a complete acquittal.

What is the most pervasive biochemical theory linking hormones to violence?

A perceived link between testosterone and male aggression.

What is battered woman syndrome (BWS)?

A set of specific psychological and behavioural symptoms caused by protracted exposure to intimate partner violence; coined by Lenore Walker.

What are the three phases of Walker's Cycle of Violence?

1. Tension-building phase, 2. Acute battering incident, 3. Respite phase (honeymoon/flower phase).

What is learned helplessness as it applies to battered women?

A condition explaining a victim's inability to protect herself against batterer's violence following repeated but failed attempts to do so, based on Seligman's theory.

What theory did Lenore Walker adapt to explain why battered women are unable to leave their abusers?

Seligman's theory of learned helplessness.

What is post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in the context of BWS?

A disorder recognized in the DSM-IV-TR characterized by presence of a trauma-inducing experience, intrusive symptoms, avoidance of triggering situations, and hyperarousal; BWS is generally recognized as a psychological condition associated with PTSD.

What does the text identify as a "key concept" of the ecological framework?

Embeddedness, in which each system functions within the operation of another system.

Why are single-cause theories considered inadequate for explaining interpersonal violence?

Because interpersonal violence is too complex to be explained by a single cause.

How many US states passed child abuse reporting laws between 1963 and 1965 following Kempe's work?

47 states.

When was the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child adopted?

1989.

What is meant by "mandated reporting"?

The legislative requirement that certain professionals report cases of suspected child abuse or neglect to a designated authority within a specified period of time.

What is "victim blaming"?

Attributing responsibility to victims for the bad things that happen to them.

What are norms?

Socially defined rules of behaviour including folkways, mores, and laws.

What is the Duluth Domestic Abuse Intervention Program (DAIP) and when was it initiated?

A program initiated in 1980 in Duluth, Minnesota to help reform the criminal justice system and understand battering behaviour.

According to the text, what is the primary driver of violent acts according to the Duluth Model?

Control and domination, not aggression.

What is the definition of "disinhibitor" as provided in the text?

Something that causes a loss or reduction of an inhibition.

What are gender stereotypes as defined in the text?

The application of the belief or attitude that certain characteristics are specific to one's gender that indirectly affect one's abilities; based on traditional stereotypes.