apes unit 1 (kortum)

Layers of soil & their characteristics

The layers of soil include the O horizon (organic matter), A horizon (topsoil), E horizon (eluviation layer), B horizon (subsoil), and C horizon (parent material), each with distinct properties affecting water retention, nutrient availability, and biological activity.

Components of soil

Soil is composed of mineral particles, organic matter, water, and air. The balance of these components affects soil fertility and health.

Three particles of soil and their characteristics

The three primary soil particles are sand (large particles, good drainage), silt (medium particles, retains moisture), and clay (small particles, high nutrient retention but poor drainage).

What is the best soil for farming?

Loamy soil, which is a balanced mixture of sand, silt, and clay, is considered the best for farming due to its ability to retain moisture and nutrients while allowing for good drainage.

Layers of Earth

The Earth consists of several layers: the crust (outer layer), mantle (semi-solid layer), outer core (liquid iron and nickel), and inner core (solid iron and nickel).

Asthenosphere

The asthenosphere is a semi-fluid layer of the upper mantle that lies beneath the lithosphere and allows tectonic plates to move.

Three types of plate boundaries

The three types of plate boundaries are divergent (plates move apart, e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge), convergent (plates collide, e.g., Himalayas), and transform (plates slide past each other, e.g., San Andreas Fault).

Two major types of mining

Surface mining (removes soil and rock above mineral deposits) and underground mining (extracts minerals from below the surface). Pros of surface mining include lower costs and higher safety; cons include environmental degradation. Pros of underground mining include less surface impact; cons include higher costs and safety risks.

What causes the seasons on Earth?

Seasons are caused by the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to its orbit around the sun, resulting in varying angles of sunlight and day length throughout the year.

Coriolis Effect

The Coriolis Effect is the deflection of moving objects (like winds and ocean currents) caused by the Earth's rotation, resulting in clockwise rotation in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.

Direction of air and ocean currents

In the Northern Hemisphere, air and ocean currents generally move clockwise, while in the Southern Hemisphere, they move counterclockwise due to the Coriolis Effect.

Three major wind cells

The three major wind cells are the Polar cells (cold air sinks at poles), Ferrell cells (between Polar and Hadley cells, driven by the movement of the other cells), and Hadley cells (warm air rises at the equator and sinks at about 30° latitude).

Rain shadow effect

The rain shadow effect occurs when moist air rises over a mountain range, cools, and loses moisture as precipitation on the windward side, leaving the leeward side dry.

Thermohaline circulation

Thermohaline circulation is the global ocean circulation driven by differences in water density, influenced by temperature and salinity, occurring in deep ocean currents.

Gyres

Gyres are large-scale circular ocean currents driven by wind patterns and the Coriolis Effect, with warm currents typically found on the western sides of ocean basins and cold currents on the eastern sides.

ENSO

El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) has two phases: El Niño (warm ocean temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific) and La Niña (cool ocean temperatures). It affects global weather patterns, including rainfall and temperature anomalies.

Nine major terrestrial biomes

The nine major terrestrial biomes include tropical rainforests, savannas, deserts, temperate forests, temperate grasslands, taiga, tundra, chaparral, and polar regions, each characterized by distinct climate, flora, and fauna.

Major aquatic biomes

Major aquatic biomes include freshwater (lakes, rivers), marine (oceans, coral reefs), and estuaries, with coral reefs being the most biodiverse, wetlands being the most productive, and estuaries playing a crucial role in pollution and flood control.