Unit 5 AP Psych

Health psychology

a subfield of psychology that explores the impact of psychological, behavioral, and cultural factors on health and wellness.

Stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

Type A personalities

competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people

Type B personalities

 easy going, relaxed people

eustress

motivating stress

• Some stress is needed to motivate you to study for upcoming exams so you can do well

distress

debilitating stress

• Too much stress like having 4 tests in one day can lead you to crash and give up

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

childhood abuse or trauma are sources of stress that can affect a person throughout the lifespan

Examples of Stressors

Catastrophes - Natural disasters, wildfires, pandemics

Significant Life Changes - death of loved one, breakup, graduating from high school, getting married

Daily hassles and social stress - homework, maintaining friendships and keeping up with social media

General adaptation syndrome

describes the process of experiencing stress in three phases:

alarm reaction 

resistance

exhaustion 

Phase 1 - alarm reaction

occurs when the stress is encountered, sympathetic nervous system is activated, heart pumps, and we go into fight-flight-freeze response.

Phase 2 - resistance phase

occurs as the stress is confronted, your temperature, blood pressure, and respiration remain high. Your endocrine system pumps epinephrine and norepinephrine into your bloodstream. You are fully engaged, summoning all your resources to meet the challenge

Phase 3 - an exhaustion phase

occurs when the stress subsides, or all resources are spent. 

The greatest susceptibility to illness occurs during the exhaustion phase.

tend-and-befriend theory

proposes that some people react to stress by tending to their own needs and the needs of others by seeking connection with others. 

• This phenomenon seems to occur mostly in women as they seek out others to deal with their stress.

Problem-focused coping

involves seeing stress as a problem to be solved and working solutions until a solution is found.

Emotion-focused coping

 involves managing emotional reactions to stress as a means of coping. 

Strategies may include deep breathing, meditation, or taking medication aimed at reducing stressful emotional responses.

Subjective well-being

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. 

Psychological disorder

a dysfunction and disturbance in people’s thoughts, emotions, or behaviors that causes distress or suffering and impairs their daily lives. It is also lead to behavior that deviates from the social norm.

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) of Mental Disorders

developed by American Psychiatric Association to classify mental disorders.

International Classification of Mental Disorders (ICD)

developed by World Health Organization to classify mental disorders.

psychodynamic perspective

proposes that the causes of mental disorders focus on unconscious thoughts and experiences, often developed during childhood.

humanistic perspective

proposes that the causes of mental disorders focus on a lack of social support and being unable to fulfill one’s potential.

behavioral perspective

proposes that the causes of mental disorders focus on maladaptive learned associations between or among responses to stimuli.

cognitive perspective

proposes that the causes of mental disorders focus on maladaptive thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, or emotions.

biological perspective

proposes that the causes of mental disorders focus on physiological or genetic issues.

evolutionary perspective

proposes that the causes of mental disorders focus on behaviors and mental processes that reduce the likelihood of survival.

sociocultural perspective

proposes that the causes of mental disorders focus on maladaptive social and cultural relationships and dynamics.

eclectic approach

using more than one psychological perspective, when diagnosing and treating clients.

• Example: A therapist uses the cognitive approach to confront the negative thoughts a client may have, and also uses the biological approach by prescribing medication for the disorder

diathesis-stress model

assumes that psychological disorders develop due to a genetic vulnerability/predisposition (diathesis) in combination with stressful life experiences (stress).

biopsychosocial model

assumes that any psychological problem potentially involves a combination of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.

Anxiety disorders

characterized by excessive fear and/or anxiety with related disturbances to behavior. Characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety

Specific Phobias:

• Agoraphobia

• Generalized anxiety disorder

• Social anxiety disorder

• Panic disorder

Specific phobia

an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation

Agoraphobia

intense fear of specific social situations, including using public transportation, being in open spaces, being in enclosed spaces (e.g., shops, theaters,), standing in line or being in a crowd, or being outside of the home alone.

Social anxiety disorder

Social anxiety disorder involves the intense fear of being judged or watched by others. This is different from but may include agoraphobia.

Taijin kyofusho

a culture-bound anxiety disorder experienced mainly by Japanese people in which people fear others are judging their bodies as undesirable, offensive, or unpleasing.

generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually anxious, tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal. 

• Worry continually, often jittery, agitated, and sleep-deprived

• One of the worst characteristics of this disorder is that the person cannot identify what is causing the anxiety, and therefore cannot deal with or avoid its cause

panic disorder

an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations.

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

 an anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions) that persistently interfere with everyday living and cause the person distress

Possible causes of anxiety disorders and OCD

focus on learned associations between and among stimuli, maladaptive thinking or emotional responses, and biological or genetic sources.

Trauma and stressor-related disorders

characterized by exposure to a traumatic or stressful event with subsequent psychological distress.

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

a disorder characterized by flashbacks and haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, hypervigilance, severe anxiety, insomnia, and hostility that lingers for a long while after a traumatic experience

Possible causes of trauma and stressor-related disorders

involve the experience of trauma or stress.

Depressive disorders

characterized by the presence of sad, empty, or irritable mood along with physical and cognitive changes that affect a person’s ability to function.

Bipolar disorders

characterized by periods of mania and periods of depression. 

Mania

a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state

Bipolar cycling

involves experiencing periods of depression a

Possible causes of depressive and bipolar disorders

focus on biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive sources.

Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders

a group of disorders characterized by one or more of these five areas: 

• delusions

• hallucinations

• disorganized thinking or speech

• disorganized or unusual motor behavior 

• negative symptoms, such as diminished emotional expression

positive symptoms of Schizophrenia

inappropriate behaviors are present

negative symptoms of Schizophrenia

appropriate behaviors are absent

Delusions (false beliefs)

positive symptoms and may manifest in ways such as delusions of persecution or grandeur.

“I am god!” - delusion of granduer

“The government is after me!” - delusion of persecution

Hallucinations (false perceptions)

positive symptoms and may involve one or more of the senses.

• They see, hear, feel, taste, or smell things that exist only in their minds. Most often, the hallucinations are voices, which sometimes make insulting remarks or give orders.

Disorganized thinking or speech

a positive symptom and may manifest as speaking in ways such as speaking in a word salad - stringing together words in ways that don’t make sense

Inappropriate emotions

 in different settings and situations are a positive symptom 

• Laughing while talking about grandmother’s death. 

• Crying when others laughed, or became angry for no apparent reason

Catatonia

 disordered movement

• Disorganized and unusual motor behavior may manifest as ___

excitement catatonia

a positive symptom that manifests itself with restlessness, agitation, and compulsive movements

stupor catatonia

a negative symptom manifestation that manifests itself in motionless movement

Negative symptoms

present itself as the lack of a typical behavior, such as 

• flat affect - the lack of emotional expression 

• catatonic stupor - lack of movement

Possible causes of schizophrenia

suggest a genetic or biological link, such as prenatal virus exposure or imbalances with certain neurotransmitters.

Dopamine hypothesis

excess number of dopamine receptors in brains of those with schizophrenia

• Hyper-responsive dopamine system may intensify brain signals in schizophrenia, creating positive symptoms such as hallucinations and paranoia 

• Drugs that block dopamine receptors often lessen these symptoms

Dissociative disorders

rare and controversial disorders characterized by dissociations from consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, body representation, motor control, and behavior.

• conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings

Dissociative amnesia

a disorder in which people with intact brains reportedly experience memory gaps

People with this may report not remembering trauma-related specific events, people, places, or aspects of their identity and life history

-forgetting about a car accident

-forgetting long periods of time like a kidnapping

Both dissociative amnesia with and without fugue can be very extreme where they don’t remember who they are or familiar people

Dissociative amnesia (with fugue) – also known as dissociative fugue,

the person has dissociative amnesia also wanders away and travels away from usual surroundings

Both dissociative amnesia with and without fugue can be very extreme where they don’t remember who they are or familiar people

Dissociative identity disorder

 a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. (Formerly called multiple personality disorder.)

Each personality has its own voice and mannerisms.

Possible causes of dissociative disorders

 involve the experience of trauma or stress, and forgetting or switching allows individuals to deal with the trauma

Personality disorders

are characterized by enduring patterns of internal experience and behavior that is deviant from one’s culture. 

Is pervasive and inflexible

Usually begins in adolescence or early adulthood 

Is stable over time and leads to personal distress or impairment.

Falls into three clusters:

Cluster A - odd or eccentric

Cluster B - dramatic, emotional, or erratic

Cluster C - anxious and fearful

Paranoid personality disorder

suspiciousness; distrust of others

Schizoid personality disorder

social detachment; limited emotional expression

Schizotypal personality disorder

 intense social discomfort; distorted cognitions or perceptions; strange beliefs; behavioral eccentricity

Antisocial personality disorder

indifference to and willingness to violate others’ rights; impulsiveness; criminal behavior 

Borderline personality disorder

impulsivity; very unstable relationships and self-image 

Histrionic personality disorder

extreme emotional expression; a need for attention 

Narcissistic personality disorder

grandiosity; admiration-seeking behavior; deficient empathy

Avoidant personality disorder

social inhibition; feeling inadequate; sensitivity to criticism

Dependent personality disorder

submissive behavior; emotional neediness

Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

a fixation on orderliness; the need for perfection and control

Possible causes of personality disorders

focus on biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive sources.

Feeding and eating disorders

characterized by altered consumption or absorption of food that impairs health or psychological functioning.

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder in which a person maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly underweight, and has an inaccurate self-perception; sometimes accompanied by excessive exercise.

bulimia nervosa

- an eating disorder in which a person’s binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) is followed by inappropriate weight-loss-promoting behavior, such as vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise.

Unlike anorexia, this is marked by weight fluctuations within or above normal ranges, making the disorder easier to hide.

Possible causes of feeding and eating disorders

focus on biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive sources – primarily affects women in teens to early 20s

Neurodevelopmental disorders

a group of disorders with onset occurring during the developmental period. There are central nervous system abnormalities (usually in the brain) that start in childhood and alter thinking and behavior – usually as in intellectual limitations or a psychological disorder.

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

inability to focus attention, easily distracted, impulsive

autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

 a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by limitations in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors.

Those with this tend to have trouble reading social cues and facial expressions

Possible causes of neurodevelopmental disorders

may be environmental, physiological, or genetic in nature  – boys tend to be diagnosed with ADHD and ASD much more than girls

Psychodynamic therapies

views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and seeks to enhance self-insight. Look to uncover the unconscious mind.

free association

saying whatever comes to mind with no filter

dream interpretation

interpret dreams by looking at the manifest content (the content and what is remembered from the dream) and latent content (what is the underlying meaning and symbols of the dream)

Humanistic therapy (person-centered therapy)

employs active listening and unconditional positive regard.

active listening

empathic listening in which the therapist echoes, restates, and clarifies patients thoughts and feelings

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude that helps clients develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

Behavioral therapy

uses learning principles to reduce unwanted behaviors.

Applied behavior analysis

involves applying principles of conditioning to address psychological disorders

Counterconditioning

a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors

exposure therapies

behavioral techniques that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actuality) to the things they fear and avoid

• Systematic desensitization

• flooding

systematic desensitization

a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias

Three steps to systematic desensitization

1. teaching progressive relaxation

2. Create an anxiety hierarchy

3. have client imagine these situations,

teaching progressive relaxation

the therapist would train you to relax

 Create an anxiety hierarchy

for a fear that you have… what is least-feared to most-feared

Example: fear of heights

Least feared – walking to second floor

Medium fear – standing on roof of three story building

Most feared – flying on a plane

have client imagine these situations

going up the anxiety hierarchy while doing progressive relaxation

Then they would try this in real life going up the anxiety hierarchy while using progressive relaxation

Flooding

exposure technique that the feared stimulus is repeatedly presented to client

• When they realize there is nothing to fear, the anxiety will become extinct

• Example: someone who fears dogs is repeatedly exposed to a dog that is friendly and doesn’t bite.