soci250 final

police concepts ladder (increasing seriousness)

racial profiling → mistreatment → brutality, violence → mortality

official police interactions (increasing seriousness)

stop and search → interaction (physical, gun drawn, gun pointed) → fired → injury (firearm, physical interaction) → death

racial profiling

a racial DISPARITY in police stop and search practices, racial differences in custom searches at airports and border-crossing etc

• disproportionate attention on minority group

stop and search disparity based on race data

toronto youth crime and victimization survey (2000)

• sample: >3300 high school students in public and catholic school

• 32 page questionnaire

• stopped: 51.5% black (2/> times), 58.7% white (never)

  • black students 4x> likely to be stopped than white students even after controlling for control items

• searched: 23.4% black (2/> times), 83.5% white (never)

  • black students 6x> likely to be searched than white students

anti racism act (2017)

mandated collection of race-based data by organizations in public sector, for purpose of eliminating systemic racism

• 2020: toronto police service started data collection

• 2022: detailed report by them

• minorities and blacks were OVERREPRESENTED in many police interactions

use of force

over-representation in enforcement actions vs presence in toronto

• black ppl 2.2x >

• indigenous ppl 1.6x>

• middle eastern ppl 1.3x>

type of force

black, south asian and east/southeast asian ppl MORE likely to experience higher uses of force compared to white ppl across all use of force

• firearm pointed: 40% blacks, 26% whites, 10% east/SEA

US police brutality

black ppl 2.9x> likely to be killed by police than white ppl → over-representative of population

reasons

product of interlocking and intertwining branch of:

• FORMAL RACISM across institutions, systems and structures

  • whiteness vs colour embedded in history (colonialism, slavery, residential schools) → social hierarchy

• INFORMAL RACISM across media, discourse, cultural reproduction

  • portrayal of minorities (stereotypes)

use of race and esp blackness as “proxy for criminal dangerousness” embedded deep in american history

• being a minority has many disadvantages + still living in residue of racism

4 structural levels

individual → organizational → city → regional

group position (blumer and bobo & hutchings)

• level of prejudice of majority group POSITIVELY related to collectively developed judgement abt position in the social order that the ingrp member should rightfully occupy rel to outgrp

• neg attitudes toward outgrp are developed from a sense of group disposition; entitlement

4 elements of group position

1. belief about in-group superiority; ethnocentrism

2. views outgrp as “alien” and different; stereotyping (anti-immigration)

3. propriety claim over certain rights, resources and privilege; entitlement

4. outgrp member desire greater share of those rights, resources and privilege that are “understood” to “belong” to the in-grp members

• privileges are innate

racial alienation attitudes of white respondents

harbouring this attitude = positively and statistically significant to see outgrp as competition (.28**)

republican values

less sympathetic to issues related to african americans vs democrats

group threat (& grp size)

• level of prejudice of majority group is POSITIVELY related to the size of the minority group

• the larger the minority grp = more competition over scarce resources

• larger group = greater potential for collective (political) action against majority

effect of city size on complaints

• % black: .040***

• ratio prop black officers/citizens: -.81*

  • more black officers = less complaints

• black dissimilarity: 2.56***

  • blacks highly segregated = more complaints

organizational level

• SUBCULTURE mentality: insider vs outsider → traits include skepticism, cynicism, mistrust of others and moral conservatism

  • perpetuated through storytelling, work itself, interaction with outsider (strong pressure to conform to traits)

• little room for individualism and personal opinion

• police = HIERARCHICAL paramilitary organization

  • officers’ choices constrained by bureaucratic forces and preferences of management

• performance often rated by “goal oriented” measure (drop in crime rate) and “means-oriented” measure (issuing tickets) → need to show productivity and doing a good job

predicting job stress among police officers

• outgrp status: 0.360*** → increase job stress

• ingroup status: -0.126** → decrease job stress

floyd vs city of NY

• police need to show that they are making city safer but also that they are doing work → selective booking and over stopping

• evidence: NYPD conducted 4.4M stops during 9 year period since 2004

  • over 80% stopped where black or hispanic → disproportional to city population

• officers made more stops in neighbourhoods w LARGER MINORITY pops

• at least 200,000 stops lacked legal basis

• testimony of NYPD officer Pedro Serrano

individual level

• effect of POLICE PERSONALITY (self-selection): authoritarianism, social dominance orientation, ethnocentrism, belief in “a just world”

• most research on racial attitudes of police officer suffers from high degree of SOCIAL DESIRABILITY bias

individual level data

stereotypes

• white police officers 9x> to believe african americans more violent than whites

• conservatives more likely

• education decreases likelihood of making any of those statements

resentment

• white police officers more likely to resent special favours to african americans + believe that they should advance without special favours

• conservative and education same as above

beliefs

• being a white police officer stat pos association with having discriminating beliefs

• conservative white police officers too

summary of individual level differences

• white police officers report MORE racially conservative attitudes than whites outside law enforcement

• differentiate themselves clearly from other whites even on explicitly declared self-reported survey measures

• unique racial conservatism of white police play role in shaping conflict, abuse of power and disparate treatment of citizens of colour

• findings consistent with group threat and power theories of intergroup relations

  • prediction: a person in a position of authority along w a sense of oppositional group interest can engender, may lead to stereotypic and neg views of ppl of colour (white officers)

use of force

• having any degree = less likely to use force

• being young, non-white, male and poor = more likely to experience force

integrated framework

interaction effect: variables in conjunction with others

issues that arise

1. criminal profiling and racial profiling hard to differentiate

• same tactic used by racist and nonracist cop

2. same race violence

• esp if in non-minority states

3. stop and search rates justified by actual/perceived rates

• possible that minorities do offend more (Sohoni et al., 2020) → meta-analysis suggests small effect of race and likelihood of committing crime (do NOT reflect disparity)

4 elements of CAPO

1. involve degree of compliance by victim (/by person committing offence)

2. based on MORAL principles defined by the public

• shifts in public opinion → changing laws

3. concerns the VISIBILITY of disorder

• seen outdoors, affecting public/other people

4. definition is RELATIVE and EVOLUTIVE concept

• constantly changing

prostitution legality

legal definition: defined as the exchange of sexual favours or money or other material goods (technically legal but laws make it illegal)

illegal before 2014

• attempts to procure or solicit a person to have illicit sexual intercourse with another person

  • cannot talk about it

• lives wholly or in part on the avails of prostitution

  • cannot hire ppl around the act itself

• keeper of a bawdy house

  • cannot have anything to do with location where its happening

logic of prostitution laws

1. increase barrier to entry

• decrease supply of sex workers

2. to protect the individual from exploitation

3. to protect adverse effect of exposure to prostitution

• not visible = not a problem

reality of effects of prostitution laws

• demand will continue to attract ppl into industry regardless of BTE → go even more underground

• cost of operating alone is too high → ultimately join others

• street prostitution may lessen but exposure still present through advertising (escort, massage, companionship = substitute language)

effects when logic does not reflect reality

• not eliminated but makes it a private matter; exploitation remains

• sex trade workers have LITTLE RIGHTS → discourages access to resources (police, healthcare)

• sex trade workers continue to experience abuse, violence, poverty

• sex work NOT seen as real work (gig economy)

new laws after 2014: bill 36

• purchasing offence: ILLEGAL to purchase sexual services or communicate w the intention of buying sex → up to 5yrs in jail + fines that begin at $500 (increase w subsequent offences)

• LEGAL to communicate and advertise yourself but not others

prostitution stats

• juristat reported <1200 cases in 2017

• less than 1% of all “other crimes”

• underreported

• police uninvolved unless it involves

  • public disturbance

  • legal status of worker (under age/refugee)

  • linked to OC

3 elements of sugar arrangement

1. sugar daddy/mommy: successful me and women who know what they want

• driven and enjoy attractive company, money not an issue → generous when it comes to supporting sugar baby

2. sugar baby: attractive ppl looking for finer things in life

• appreciate exotic trips and gifts

3. an allowance: typically prepaid credit card, cash or paypal transaction

• covers sugar babys living expenses, rent, tuition w spending money left over

3 categories of arrangements

landscape changes over time

1. frank exchange of sex for money without any form of companionship

2. LT sugar arrangements that incl high levels of companionship

3. hybrid of first 2; LT sex for money exchanges w little social companionship

number 1 motivator to be a sugar baby

financial security (include money and tution fees)

issues with public order

1. plastic sexuality: an increase of acceptance that had freed idea of sex from reproduction to MALLEABILITY of erotic expression for all indivs due to social norms

2. commodification of sexuality: advertising; capitalistic

• blurring of whats considered practical

3. performance of sexuality (waitresses, cheerleading)

4. neoliberal laws and policies: pushed consumers to accept the consumption of sexuality (tourism, licenses)

5. sugaring: blurring of romance and sex work

• techniques to mentally and emotionally distance themselves from being associated w sex industry

license fee

body-rub parlour, body-painting studio and model studio → allow ppl to be legally nude inside establishment

• loopholes exist in laws and legislations

cultural hegemony

dominant class subtly controls society by making its values seem natural through institutions

issues w cultural hegemony

1. definition of sexual r/s

• men primarily play dominant role

2. role of women in society and relations to sex

• more economically vulnerable

• last resort strategy

3. role of agency in sex work

• choice/desire to be in adult industry

what are the laws protecting

• labour, morality, choice

definition of OC

criminal code

1. composed of 3/> persons in or outside of canada

2. has as one of its main purposes or main activities the facilitation or commission of 1/> SERIOUS OFFENCES (indictable) would likely result in the direct/indirect receipt of a MATERIAL benefit (incl financial), by the grp or any of the persons who constitute the grp

3. does NOT incl a grp of persons that forms randomly for the immediate commission of a single offence → must be planned

8 characteristics of OC

1. non-ideological: have no political affiliation (but may have political opinion)

2. hierarchical: chain of command (that cannot be broken)

3. exclusive membership: along kinship/ethnic lines bc trust v impt

4. perpetuous: ongoing, persist over time (generational but may grow/shrink)

5. organized through division of labour: each has specialized job

6. monopolistic: dominance over geographic area + limits competition

7. governed by rules and regulation: code of honour

8. use of violence: means to achieve ends + intimidation/defence

• not by default since hospital bills and legal fees are exp, lose labour,

3 types of OC

1. small-scale

• not affiliated w “traditional OC” families of historical variety

• street level crimes

2. traditional OC

• related to historical processes and linkages that reflect early immigration into US → take care of e/o for survival

• italian mafia

3. (new) non-traditional OC

• reflected in newer shifts and mvmts within criminal element that dont fit 2

• cartel

• lineage and bloodline may not matter as much → aligned interests more

small scale OC

• ethnically homogenous due to membership boundaries (rituals, secret meeting place)

• composition relative to geographic area

• retail end of OC

• profits used to maintain LIFESTYLE of members

large scale (T/NT)

• ethnically homogenous due to membership boundaries due to trust issues

• boundaries can be regional or transnational

• manufacturing/wholesale side of OC

• profits used to maintain operations and growth of enterprise

need for a unified model

• criminology = DIVIDED discipline, comprised theories and perspectives that are at odds with o/a

• all underlying assumptions have SOME support

• there is a reason to believe that crime is strongly influenced by factors BEYOND INDIV’S CONTROL but also reflects exercise of agency w range of factors influencing degree of agency exercised

  • bridge structure and agency

theoretical issues

1. determinism vs agency (structure)

2. consensus vs conflict

3. timing of variables

determinism vs agency

• research and theory suggest that indivs exercise greater agency when they are

1. motivated to alter their behaviour (e.g. given mentor, scholarships → breakthrough structure)

2. believe they can produce desired change

3. have the traits and resources necessary to exercise agency

4. are in environments that have weak/countervailing constraints, provide numerous opportunities for agency + encourage agency

consensus vs conflict

• all functioning societies characterized by a CORE CONSENSUS; ppl condemning the unconditional use of personal violence and theft and cooperating in certain areas (defense from external threats)

  • structural functionalist

• extent and nature of consensus and conflict vary → grp differences and self-interest diffs

• crime results from the failure to participate in this consensus

• grp differences in power → oppression

timing of variables

criminologists assumed variables that cause crime = fairly stable over time

1. linear effect

• given change in a variable always results int he same amount of change in crime (but effect diff at diff time points)

2. additive effect

• effect of a variable on crime does NOT depend on the level of other variables (but effect can be multiplied)

• relative deprivation → GST

3. lagged effect

• assume that it takes some time for a variable to influence crime (effects can be ST)

little consideration given to LT changes in these variables (evident over life-course of indivs) → need to devote attention to changes in cause of crime + manner in which certain causes change with the situation

developmental theory

• builds on thornberry and colleagues’ interactional theory of gang membership (starts w more distal structural variables and progresses to more proximal processual ones)

• focuses on early stages incl PRE-SCHOOL stage and years pertaining school entry

• early childhood aggression and disruptive behaviours including stubbornness, defiance, disobedience and truancy = products of DYSFUNCTIONAL FAMILIES (esp in disadvantaged communities)

• aggressive and disruptive behaviours likely followed by REJECTION by prosocial peers → opening door to antisocial/deviant peer influences

UN gang

located in fraser valley and abbotsford

• consisted of upper middle class members (diff from US gangs)

• ethnically diverse

• operate in suburban neighbourhoods

• not so much a gang but a “criminal business organization”

• developmental theory x context interaction

  • diff mentality from larger cities

  • sometimes work with other gangs too (adaptable)

victimization overview

assumption: crime is indicative of a subject-object relation than of the perpetrator alone → 2 party event, not just criminal themself

• focus of victimology

  • extent, nature and causes of criminal victimization

  • consequences for the persons involved and their needs and representation

  • victim characteristics; “victim profiling” → to solve certain types of crime

5 reasons for studying victims

1. crime is costly (lost of productivity, healthcare costs)

2. help to develop prevention strats

3. have a voice in CJS

4. assist victims to re-integrate back to normal life

5. can help to explain offending

victimization and substance abuse

ppl who have been victims = more likely to be offenders themselves (cycle of hurt/violence) → offset neg emotions

antisocial behaviour

• growing evidence that crime victims are more likely to commit crime themselves → aka cycle of violence (intergenerational)

• young children observe and imitate adult behaviour (Bandura’s modeling/learning theory)

  • more exposure to violence = more likely to be violent

• being abused as a child increases odds of being a victimizer themselves

factors related to victimizer status

• abused before 16y = 3.5x>

• physically abused before 16y = 3x>

• sexually abused before 16y = 2x>

impact of timing of any maltreatment on adolescent offending

maltreatment in adolescence only: delinquency (2x), arrest (almost 4x)

maltreatment in childhood only: delinquency and arrest (1x)

• family structure and low hhld income NOT good predictor (not stat sig)

history of victimology

started in 60s as reponse to victims 3Rs: rights, reparation and representation

• first grps started by parents of murdered children, later increased to address women who experiences assault and abuse

• victimization surveys implemented to count ‘dark figure of crime’

4 main purposes of victimization surveys

1. provide info on the aftermath of their victimization

2. allows researchers to asess the CJS RESPONSE to victims

3. enables researcher to measure levels of fear of crime

4. enables researcher to tap into number of victims who do NOT report their victimization

victim characteristics

1. age

• more protected as you age due to exposure and likelihood of drinking/partying

2. gender

• being male = more likely to be victim of assault (physical OR sexual)

• but not BOTH

3. social status (economic strata and crime prone area)

• personal property crime: rich ppl more likely

4. marital status

• married = less likely to be victim of crime since always protected, less risky behaviours and more connections

correlates of victim characteristics

older also more likely to be married, married ppl more wealthy due to dual income

victim precipitation theory (mendelsohn and von hentig)

• actions are the “telltale” signs → presents themselves as potential target

• active (instigator) vs passive (easy target)

• stereotypes vs typologies (13 types)

• carved out key relevant demographic factors

hentig’s victim typology

1. young

2. female

3. old

4. metally defective and deranged

5. immigrants

6. minorities

7. dull normals (simple minded ppl)

8. depressed

9. acquisitive (greedy)

10. wanton (promiscuous)

11. lonesome or heartbroken

12. tormentor (abusive parent)

13. blocked, exempted or fighting (victims of blackmail, extortion)

hindeland et al.’s lifestyle model

• risk of victimization correlated w lifestyle

• more active and more social = more RISK

• unemployed more likely to be victim of robbery, assault and theft

  • employed = patterned lifestyle, same ppl around them

• 3 related hypothesis

3 hypotheses of lifestyle model

1. equivalent group hypothesis

• offender-victim similar in SES characteristics

• e.g. black on black violence

2. proximity hypothesis

• offender-victim similar in social space

• e.g. drug user and dealers

3. deviant place hypothesis

• offender-victim in similar geographic space

• victim prone bc they reside/work in disorganized high-crime areas

• e.g. bouncer at club

routine activities theory

focus on things we do everyday

• routine activity PATTERNS affects likelihood of being victim of crime (target hardening)

• depends on convergence of 3 elements

1. motivated offender

2. suitable target/victim

3. absence of guardian/protector

• not necessarily a person → can be car, camera, lock, fake camera

strain theory

pre-ww2

• bad economy

• less B&E

• men worked outside, women inside (hard target)

post ww2

• good economy

• more B&E

• more women outside (house empty), bigger houses w more things (easier target with no witnesses/protection)

predictions of victimization

increased risk if:

1. live in high-crime areas

2. go out late at night

3. carry valuables

4. engage in risky behaviour

5. are without friends/family to watch or help them

application of victimology

• can use characteristics of victims and work BACKWARDS to profile offenders

• specific technique used: GEOGRAPHICAL PROFILING (Rossmo’s formula) → looking at where victims live/where bodies were dumped and work backwards to see where offenders reside/work

  • helps detective locate eyewitness, obtain confession and physical evidence faster and more effectively

  • applies math formula that calculates the RESIDENCE-TO-CRIME DISTANCE function to narrow down offender’s location

  • buffer zone (unlikely to commit there) vs hot zone (likely to commit)

geographic profiling

most crimes happen within 6 mile radius