The Respiratory System and Major Lung Diseases

VOCABULARY flashcards covering anatomy, lab tests, pathology, and histology of the respiratory system based on lecture notes.

Nasopharynx

A component of the upper respiratory tract located behind the nasal cavity.

Oropharynx

A part of the upper respiratory tract that serves as a common passage for food and air.

Larynx

A structure in the middle respiratory tract containing the vocal ligament and folds.

Trachea

The main airway or windpipe belonging to the middle respiratory tract.

Bronchioles

Small branches of the lower respiratory tract leading to the alveoli.

Alveoli

The microscopic air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs.

Epiglottis

A flap of cartilage that covers the larynx during swallowing.

Pneumocyte type I

A type of cell in the alveolus involved in the structure of the air exchange surface.

Pneumocyte type II

A secretory cell in the alveolus that produces the surfactant layer.

Surfactant

A substance produced by pneumocyte type II cells that reduces surface tension in the alveoli.

Complete Blood Count (CBC)

A laboratory test used to detect signs of infection and inflammation in respiratory disease.

Arterial Blood Gases (ABG)

A test used to assess a patient's oxygenation and acid-base status.

Sputum Analysis

The laboratory examination of phlegm to identify pathogens or abnormal cells.

Molecular Tests

Laboratory tests such as PCR used to detect viral or bacterial genetic material.

Serological Tests

Tests that measure the immune response to specific pathogens.

Culture and Sensitivity

Microbiology tests used to identify pathogens and guide appropriate antibiotic therapy.

C-reactive protein (CRP)

A biomarker used in the clinical laboratory to monitor systemic inflammation.

Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR)

A non-specific marker of inflammation used to monitor chronic respiratory diseases.

Alpha-1 antitrypsin

A protein whose levels are measured when genetic COPD is suspected.

Eosinophil counts

Cell counts used specifically in the management and monitoring of asthma.

Neuron-Specific Enolase (NSE)

A tumor marker assay used in the diagnosis of Small cell lung carcinoma.

EGFR (Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor)

A protein whose mutations are targets for specific molecular lung cancer therapies.

ALK mutations

Genetic alterations in lung cancer used to select targeted therapy options.

Ciliated cells

Respiratory epithelial cells equipped with hair-like projections to move mucus.

Neuroendocrine cells

Specific cells in the bronchus that serve as the origin for small-cell carcinoma.

Clara cell

A specialized cell found in the histology of the bronchiole.

Acute Rhinitis

An upper respiratory infection that can be classified as either allergic or viral.

Sinusitis

Inflammation of the sinuses which can present in acute or chronic forms.

Otitis media

An infection of the middle ear often associated with upper respiratory tract issues.

Epiglottitis

An acute inflammation of the epiglottis that can cause airway obstruction.

Alveolar Pneumonia

A form of pneumonia characterized by the presence of PMN leukocytes and fibrin within the alveoli.

Interstitial Pneumonia

Inflammations of the lung involving lymphocytes and macrophages within the alveolar septa.

Bronchopneumonia

A type of pneumonia characterized by patchy inflammation of the lungs.

Streptococcus pneumoniae

A common bacterial cause of pneumonia.

Haemophilus influenzae

A bacterium listed as a common cause of pneumonia.

Staphylococcus aureus

A gram-positive bacterium that can cause pneumonia.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

The primary bacterial pathogen responsible for pulmonary tuberculosis.

Mycoplasma pneumoniae

A bacteria-like organism that causes a common form of pneumonia.

Aspergillus flavus

A fungal pathogen that can cause respiratory infections.

Candida albicans

A fungus listed as a potential cause of pneumonia.

Dyspnea

Shortness of breath, often a clinical feature of pneumonia.

Tachypnea

Rapid breathing commonly seen as a local sign of airway irritation.

Hemoptysis

The expectoration of blood or rusty sputum, indicating tissue destruction.

Empyema

A complication of pneumonia involving the accumulation of pus in the pleural cavity.

Bronchiectasis

A condition characterized by permanent, abnormal dilation of the bronchi.

Ghon's Complex

A primary tuberculosis lesion consisting of a peripheral lung nodule and a corresponding lymph node.

Caseous necrosis

The cheese-like central necrosis characteristic of tuberculosis granulomas.

Epithelioid macrophages

Activated macrophages that resemble epithelial cells, found in tuberculosis lesions.

COPD

The acronym for Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease.

Chronic Bronchitis

A component of COPD clinically referred to as "blue bloaters."

Emphysema

A component of COPD clinically referred to as "pink puffers."

Cylindrical bronchiectasis

A specific morphological form of bronchiectasis where the bronchi are uniformly dilated.

Saccular bronchiectasis

A form of bronchiectasis where the bronchi show balloon-like dilations.

Allergic rhinitis

An immune-mediated disease of the upper respiratory tract.

Asthma

An immune disease characterized by smooth muscle spasm, mucous plugs, and inflammation.

Sarcoidosis

A systemic immune disease characterized by noncaseating granulomas.

Hypersensitivity pneumonitis

An immune-mediated lung disease also known as "farmer's lungs."

SRS-A

Slow-reacting substance of anaphylaxis, a mediator released during an asthma attack.

Smooth muscle hyperplasia

The increase in smooth muscle cells found in the histopathology of bronchial asthma.

Hilar lymph node granulomas

A common finding in sarcoidosis involving the lymph nodes near the lungs.

Erythema nodosum

A skin manifestation characterized by red nodules associated with sarcoidosis.

Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)

Acute respiratory failure caused by diffuse alveolar and endothelial cell injury.

Hyaline membrane

A protein-rich layer that forms in the alveoli during ARDS, hindering gas exchange.

Atelectasis

A condition involving the collapse or incomplete expansion of the lung.

Pneumothorax

The presence of air in the pleural cavity leading to lung collapse.

Hydrothorax

The accumulation of fluid in the pleural cavity resulting in lung compression.

Squamous metaplasia

A change in the bronchial epithelium from ciliated cells to squamous cells due to chronic irritation.

Squamous cell carcinoma

A type of lung cancer strongly associated with persistent cigarette smoke exposure.

Adenocarcinoma

The most common histologic form of lung cancer derived from mucous or ciliated cells.

Small-cell carcinoma

A highly malignant lung carcinoma derived from neuroendocrine cells.

Large-cell undifferentiated carcinoma

A histologic category of lung carcinoma that lacks specific differentiation.

Paraneoplastic syndromes

Systemic effects of lung cancer produced by tumor-derived hormones or cytokines.

Pleural effusion

The accumulation of fluid in the pleural space, often due to local cancer extension.

Primary infection (TB)

The initial infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Secondary infection (TB)

The reactivation or reinfection of tuberculosis in a previously sensitized host.

Extrapulmonary dissemination

The spread of tuberculosis from the lungs to other organs like the liver or brain.

Basal cells

Stem cells located at the base of the bronchial epithelium.

Pleuritis

Inflammation of the pleura, also known as pleurisy.

PMN leukocytes

Polymorphonuclear leukocytes found in the alveoli during alveolar pneumonia.

Rusty sputum

A clinical sign of pneumonia indicating inflammation and tissue destruction.

What are the main functions of the normal respiratory system?

The normal respiratory system functions primarily to facilitate gas exchange, bringing oxygen into the body while expelling carbon dioxide. It also helps regulate blood pH, provides protection against pathogens, and assists in vocalization.

What are the common causes of upper respiratory infections?

Common causes of upper respiratory infections include viral infections (such as the common cold caused by rhinoviruses), bacterial infections (like streptococcal pharyngitis), allergens, and irritants (such as smoke or pollution).

What are the symptoms of upper respiratory infections?

Symptoms of upper respiratory infections usually include a runny or stuffy nose, sore throat, cough, sneezing, headaches, and fatigue. Fever may also occur in some cases.

What is the pathogenesis of epiglottitis?

Epiglottitis is caused by inflammation of the epiglottis, often due to infections by bacteria such as Haemophilus influenzae type b, leading to swelling that can obstruct the airway.

What are the etiological factors of laryngitis?

Laryngitis is commonly caused by viral infections, overuse of the voice, irritants (such as smoke or allergens), and bacterial infections, leading to inflammation of the larynx.

What are the symptoms of epiglottitis?

Symptoms of epiglottitis include severe sore throat, difficulty swallowing, drooling, stridor (a high-pitched sound during breathing), and fever.

What are the symptoms of laryngitis?

Symptoms of laryngitis typically include a hoarse voice, loss of voice, sore throat, dry cough, and sometimes fever.

What are the causes of acute tracheobronchitis?

Acute tracheobronchitis is commonly caused by viral infections, such as the common cold or influenza, but can also be triggered by bacterial infections and environmental irritants like smoke or pollutants.

What are the symptoms of bronchopneumonia?

Symptoms of bronchopneumonia typically include cough, fever, chest pain, shortness of breath, and production of purulent sputum, which may be green or rusty in color.

What are the common causes of pneumonia?

Common causes of pneumonia include bacterial pathogens like Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Staphylococcus aureus; viral infections such as influenza and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV); and less commonly, fungal infections like Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Aspergillus species.

What is the pathogenesis of pneumonia?

Pneumonia occurs when pathogens invade the lung parenchyma, leading to inflammation and the accumulation of fluid and immune cells in the alveoli, disrupting normal gas exchange and causing symptoms such as cough, fever, and dyspnea.

What is the primary cause of bacterial pneumonia?

Bacterial pneumonia is primarily caused by bacterial pathogens, with Streptococcus pneumoniae being the most common culprit, along with others such as Haemophilus influenzae and Staphylococcus aureus.

What are the typical symptoms of viral pneumonia?

Typical symptoms of viral pneumonia include cough, fever, chills, muscle pain, headache, and fatigue, often presenting more subtly compared to bacterial pneumonia.

How does the onset of bacterial pneumonia typically differ from viral pneumonia?

Bacterial pneumonia often has a sudden onset with acute symptoms, whereas viral pneumonia may develop more gradually, with symptoms that may mimic those of a common cold or flu.

What are the typical treatments for bacterial pneumonia?

Bacterial pneumonia is usually treated with antibiotics targeting the specific bacteria causing the infection, along with supportive care such as hydration and rest.

What is the role of immunization in preventing pneumonia?

Immunization with vaccines, such as the pneumococcal vaccine for bacterial pneumonia or the influenza vaccine to prevent viral pneumonia, can significantly reduce the risk of these infections.

What is the pathogenesis of pulmonary tuberculosis?

Pulmonary tuberculosis is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leading to the formation of granulomas as the immune system attempts to contain the infection. This results in localized inflammation and tissue necrosis in the lungs.

What are the typical lesions associated with pulmonary tuberculosis?

Typical lesions in pulmonary tuberculosis include caseous necrosis, cavitary lesions in lung tissue, and Ghon's complex, which consists of a peripheral lung nodule and an involved lymph node.

What is caseous necrosis in the context of tuberculosis?

Caseous necrosis is the cheese-like central necrosis characteristic of tuberculosis granulomas, indicative of the chronic inflammatory response to the bacterial infection.

What is Ghon's complex?

Ghon's complex is a primary tuberculosis lesion consisting of a peripheral lung nodule (primary lesion) and a corresponding lymph node involvement, typically seen in the initial stages of pulmonary tuberculosis.